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The

Anthropological History

of Europe

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The

Anthropological History
of Europe

Being the Rhind Lectures for 1891

REVISED TO DATE

BY

JOHN BEDDOE

M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

Vice-President of the Anthropological Institute ;

Officier de V Instruction Publique {France) ;

Corr. Memb. Anthrop. Soc, Berlin;

For. Assoc. Anth. Soc, Paris;

Hon. Memb. Imp. Soc. of Fr'- of Sci., Moscow ;

Hon. 3Iemb. Anthr. Soc*-, Brussels and Washington ;

Amer. Antiq. Soc, etc.

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PAISLEY: ALEXANDER GARDNER

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* 1912

LONDON
8IHPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT & CO., LMD.

1097369

PRINTED BY ALEXANDER GARDNER, PAISLEY

J

PREFACE.

This new edition of The Anthropological History
of Europe seems to be called for not only by the
exhaustion of the earlier one, but by the lapse of
time (twenty years) since the delivery of the Rhind
Lectures of 1891, during which period the limits
of what may fairly be termed history have been
pushed back in some parts of Europe by hundreds
or even thousands of years, and the views I origin-
ally expressed on some parts of the subject have
either been confirmed or rendered more problem-
atical. I have endeavoured therefore to bring
the volume up to date, but have avoided entering
on the discussion of such subjects as pygmies and
steatopygous men in Europe, of which we as yet
know little, and which must as yet be excluded
from the domain of history.

J. B.

Bradford-on-Avon,
June, 1911.

I

CONTENTS.

1'A(;k

First Lecture.

The Aryan Question and that of

Variation of Type, .... 9

History of the Aryan Question — Latham and European origin —
Ujfalvy's discovery of the Galchas — The Scandinavian and
Lithuanian heresies — The Variation Question — Extreme views
— Monogenism and Polygenism — Supposed modifying influ-
ences — Climate and environment — Conjugal selection — Dwind-
ling of military and governing castes — EflFectvS of food and drink.

Second Lecture.

Variation— Primeval Man— Succession

OF Races, 37

Opinions of contemporary anthropologists — Kollman's five per-
manent European types — Deniker on importance of hair as a
character — Schaaffhausen on inferiority of primitive man and
of the longheaded type — Ancient types : the Canstatt : the
Cro-magnon : the Eskimo — Neolithic period : brachykephals
abroad ; none in Britain — Bronze periods — Swarming of suc-
cessive races : Phoenicians, Greeks, Gauls, Romans, Teutons,
Saracens, Slavs, Turco-mongols.

Third Lecture.
Russia and the Balkan Peninsula, - 64

Russia — The Scythians — Spread of the Slavs — Physical characters
of the Finns — The Merians — The Mongol invasion— Compo-
sition of the modern Russian people — The Lithuanians — Ugrian
and Tartar tribes — The ancient occupants of the Balkan pen-
insula — The Hellenes — Modern descendants of the Thracians
and lUyrians.

8 Contents.

PAGE

Fourth Lecture.
Scandinavia, Central Europe, France, 90

Oldest Scandinavian Skull-forms — The Borreby and Svelrik skulls
— The Rhoxalani — Modern Norwegians and Danes — The Ice-
landers — Ancient German Graverow type — The four Swiss
types of His and Rutimeyer — Von Holder's discoveries at
Ratisbon — Ranke on the Bavarians — Bohemia — Hallstadt —
Hungary, Poland, Holland — Colour and stature in Central
Europe — France, constitution of the Keltic nation there —
Results of the Volkswanderung — Clear demarcation of types in
Belgium, less clear in France — Investigations of Topinard and
Collignon.

Fifth Lecture.
Spain, Italy, and the British Isles, - 124

Spain and Portugal — De A.ranzadi on the Basques — Italy : The
Ancient and Modern Romans — The Sards, purest race in
Western Europe — The Jews ; their original and secondary types
— The Gypsies — Brief sketch of the Races of Britain : Specimen
districts — Pembrokeshire — The Isle of Man.

Sixth Lecture.
Scotland, with General Conclusions, 147

Considerations of special districts, such as Berwickshire, an
Anglian, and Ballachulish, a Gaelic locality — Difficult and
doubtful points in British ethnology — Possible effects of urban
life — Growth and decline of races and types, and their probable
future.

Appendix— Description of Illustrations, 190

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Curves of Kephalic Index (from Retzius and Furst), - facing 88
European Skull Types — Vertical Aspect, - - - ,, 102
Curves of Stature in French Conscripts, - - - ,,122

Living (Kephalic) Index, ,, 166

Diagram of SkuUbreadth in Pure and in Mixed Races, ,, 178

LECTURE I.

THE ARYAN QUESTION AND THAT OF
VARIATION OF TYPE.

History of the Aryan Question — Latham and European origin —
Ujfalvy's discovery of the Galchas — The Scandinavian and
Lithuanian heresies — The Variation Question — Extreme views
— Monogenism and Polygenism — Supposed modifying influ-
ences — Climate and environment — Conjugal selection — Dwind-
ling of military and governing castes — Effects of food and drink.

IN accordance with the will of my valued and
lamented friend the founder of the Rhind
Lectureship, I am taking for my subject the anthro-
pology of ancient Europe and its connection with
that of modern Europe, and especially of our own
country ; including the descent and connections or
relations of physical types. If from these we can
deduce anything as to the laws which govern the
changes that have taken place in these types, or as
to the causes of their development, so much the
better. I scarcely hope to do that ; but I may per-
haps be able at least to place some of the problems
of anthropology before you.

Now, these are of course many; but there are two
which above all others are at present constant sub-
jects of debate; and one of them is what may be
shortly denoted as the Aryan Question, while the

2

10 The Anthropological History of Europe.

other is the question of the degree of permanence
of types, of the stability or permanence of form
and colour, of the influence upon physical character
of media, of surroundings and external agencies,
whether directly or by way of natural selection.

The Aryan question was originally a philological
one : it was philological discovery that gave it birth
— the discovery of Sanskrit and Zend, and of their
relation to the principal European languages — and
while everybody devoutly believed in the powerful
and rapid influence of media, and was not particu-
larly curious as to the mode of working of these
media, while everybody thought that negroes were
black because the sun had burned them so, and
nobody troubled his own head about the form of
the heads of other folk, there was no difficulty in
believing that all people who spoke Aryan (or Indo-
German) languages were of one blood.

Then came the knowledge of the Indian and
Persian sacred books, of how the Veda introduced
the white-complexioned friends of Indra from the
north-west, and how the Vendidad brought the
noble Aryan from a cold country, where there were
only two months of summer, and which apparently
lay closer to Sogdiana and Bactria, to the Jaxartes
and the Oxus, than to any other part of ancient
Iran. And so it was that the Roof of the World,
the tableland of Pamir, and the valleys that seamed
its skirts, came to be looked on as the cradle of the
Aryan race.

I believe it was my old friend. Dr. Robert Gordon
Latham, who was the first to rebel against this doc-

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 11

trine. He was the father of many paradoxes, most
of which perished still-born or in their cradles ; but
this one, though ill received at first in the land of
its birth, throve wonderfully in Germany, where
philologists found arguments in its favour more
cogent perhaps than those of its parent, whose chief
point indeed was the simple one that, whereas there
were far more Aryan -speaking men in Europe than
in Asia, the onus probandi lay on those who would
derive the greater from the less, rather than the less
from the greater. The same kind of argument
might have been used to derive the Jews from
Poland, or the British people from the United
States, or rather from North America, or the Por-
tuguese from Brazil.

Other and important elements and considera-
tions have since been introduced into the question,
or recognized as bearing upon it. Many of these
are philological : much, as you are aware, is deduced
from study of the words which are common to all
or most of the Indo-German languages, and may
therefore be supposed to have belonged to the
original Aryan tongue. On this part of the subject
I am quite incompetent to enlarge ; but I would
like to take the opportunity of expressing some
doubt whether sufficient notice is taken of the easy
transference of meaning, in the words which are
used for the purpose of this line of argument, which
may considerably affect their value. Thus the
Latin aes, brass, appears to be identical with the
German eisen, iron. Geiger drew attention to this
ease of transference ; but, however well known.

12 The Anthropological History of Europe.

it seems sometimes to be forgotten or under-
estimated.

The investigation, by a distinguished Hungarian
traveller, of the Galchas, the race who inhabit Kar-
ategin, Durwaz, Shignan, Wakhan, the elevated
valleys of the Oxus and the Zerafshan, which
constitute precisely the cradle of the Aryan race,
according to those who cling to the earlier theory,
has also given some of us new lights on the subject.
For whereas we northern Europeans have most of
us long-oval or oblong heads, and the same is the
case with high-caste Hindus, who, by the original
hypothesis, were our near kinsfolk ; we were accus-
tomed to assume, that we were the genuine descen-
dants of the potentially gifted Aryan; while the
anthropologists of the central latitudes of Europe, in-
cluding the great Broca himself, having heads whose
breadth was greater than four-fifths of their length,
sat contentedly under the imputation of belonging
to an inferior race, which, among other benefits, had
received from us at least the rudiments of their ad-
mirable languages. For had not Broca himself shewn,
pretty conclusively, that head-form was a vastly more
permanent characteristic of race than language }

Wood, and I believe Burnes, and perhaps one or
two Russian travellers, had indeed penetrated the
inmost recesses of Pamir, but Ujfalvy was the first
to submit a competent number of the Galchas to
scientific investigation. And in his hands they
turned out to be a sturdy, thick-set, short-headed
population, dark-haired on the whole and hazel-
eyed, though including a certain proportion of^

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 13

blonds, and on the whole yielding, to the callipers
and measuring tape, figures not unlike what may
be gotten in Auvergne, or in the Alpine valleys of
Savoy or Piedmont.

Now these Galchas, with their neighbours the
Badakshani (lying south of them between the Oxus
and the Hindu Kush, and reported to resemble
them), have apparently the best title to represent
our Aryan ancestors, if those ancestors are really to
be sought in Asia. It would be natural for the sur-
plus population of these valleys to overflow into
Sogdiana and Bactria, as it is represented in the
Vendidad to have done.

It is true, on the other hand, that the tribes
which occupy the secluded valleys south of the
crest of the Hindu Kush seem to differ physically
from the Galchas. But not only the geographical
position of these tribes, the Kafirs or Siah-Posh
Kafirs, the Chitralis (who seem to be Islamized
Kafirs), the people of Hunza-Nagar, the Dards,
whom we know to have occupied, by the unmis-
takable name of Daradrae, the same position since
the dawn of geography ; not only their position, but
whatever we know of them, seems to indicate that
they bear the same relation to the Hindus that the
Galchas bear to the Persians; that if the Galchas are
the rearguard of the old Persian migration, these
Kafirs and Dards are the rearguard of the Aryo-
Hindu migration.

Our information regarding the physical charac-
ters of these southern tribes is not so comprehensive
as might be wished, but here also Ujfalvy has helped

14 The Anthropological History of Europe.

us ; and it is satisfactory that they have been exam-
ined by the very man who knows most about their
analogues, the Galchas. Ujfalvy confirms what
little other information we have about their crania.
They are generally long-headed, the average cranial
index or proportion of breadth to length being
about 75, or nearly identical with the average in our
own country. It may be worth mentioning, how-
ever, that the one Siah-Posh Kafir who has ever
visited England, and whom through the courtesy of
Professor Leitner I had the opportunity of examin-
ing, was an exception to the rule; he had a short,
square head, and altogether more resembled the
Galchas, as they are described.

There are evidently great varieties of complexion
among these people. Bellew says some Kafirs are
very dark and others very fair. Sir C. Robertson
says most Kafirs are about the same complexion as
Punjabis. Ujfalvy met with some blonds; and so
did Leitner in Dardistan, and Hayward also : but
the first named observer finally concluded that the
cradle of the blonds, the fountain-head of the fair
races, is not to be found either north or south of the
Hindu Kush.

Obviously, with facts like these among the bases
of argument, a great number of views about Aryan
origins are possible, even after excluding any which
might start with a denial of there having ever been
a time when the speakers of the primitive Aryan
language "dwelt together under one roof," or at
least in the same horde.

Thus, firstly, the starting-point may have been

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 15

in the land of the Galchas ; the first offswarm may
have been that of the ancestors of the European
nations, the second that of the ancestors of the
high-caste Hindus, the residue being the parents of
the Persians and their kindred tribes, the Kurds,
Afghans, Ossetes of the Caucasus, etc. This may
be said to be the orthodox view, of which Professor
MiJller was the great champion, but it has long been
losing ground. Those who still adhere to it must
entertain strong opinions as to the easy mutability
of language, the readiness of one tribe or nation to
accept and acquire the language of another; or they
must believe in the powerful and rapid action of
media, of external agencies, upon national physique;
or, still better, they must combine both these ways
of thinking.

A sub-variety of this first species, held by some
who have formed a low estimate of the power of
external agencies, and particularly by some French
anthropologists, is this — that the brachycephalic or
broad-headed folk of Central Europe, that is, of the
central zone in latitude, which includes most of the
great mountain -chains — the Cevennes, the Alps, the
Black Forest, the Vosges, the Carpathians and
Pindus, with the regions adjacent — that all these
are descended from Asiatic ancestors of a common
stock with the Galchas, that they brought the
Aryan language into Europe, and communicated it
to the northern and southern Europeans. This
opinion is based upon the resemblance between the
Galchas and the Auvergnats, for example, which
certainly does appear very close.

16 The Anthropological History of Europe.

Next comes the great modern heresy, already
mentioned, which derives the Aryan languages of
Asia in their two great branches, the Iranian and
the Indian, from Europe. It has gained ground very
much of late years, and may now perhaps be said to
hold the field. Few, however, of those who hold it
make any endeavour to account for the colonization
of Asia, the difficulty of doing which is very great.
There are two principal sub-varieties of this theory,
one of which supposes the primitive Aryan language
to have originated somewhere in that central region
of Europe which I have just now been defining,
while the other assigns the credit of having given
it birth to the northern zone, and to the blond,
dolichocephalic (long-headed) family, of which the
Scandinavians furnish the best types. The argu-
ments in favour of these two varieties of opinion
may be found respectively in two books of small
dimensions, and in our own language — that of
Canon Isaac Taylor, who champions the Central
or Alpine brachycephals, and that of Professor
Rendell, who takes up the cause of our own north-
ern long-heads.

There are anthropologists in Germany, however
— as Poesche and Fligier, for example-r-who would
trace the patriarchal Aryan to his lair in the marshes
of Lithuania, rather than to the valleys of the Alps
or the forests of Sweden. The alleged nearer rela-
tion of Sanskrit to Lithuanic than to any other
European language, furnishes them with one argu-
ment ; another, which may or may not be relevant,
is that Lithuania has some title to be considered the

r

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. Y7

cradle of the blonds — of this, more hereafter ; a third
is, or might be, the geographical position of the
country, which, before the Slavonic Russians pushed
north-eastwards across the Dnieper, may have had
an uninterrupted plain, totally unoccupied so far as
Aryan-speaking men were concerned, extending all
the way from their frontier to that of the Galchas
or their kindred in Turkestan.

In the next place we must consider briefly the
great question of transformation or of variability
of type. Time was when no one had any doubt
about the powerful influence of external agencies,
nor any about their operating in the most direct
way. They saw, as we see, that they do affect the
individual both physically and morally, that the
sun tans or freckles the complexion of a blond,
developing pigment either over the whole exposed
surface or merely in spots, and that it darkens or
yellows the skin of a brunette. They saw, or
thought they saw, that the vigorous, energetic
European grew languid and indolent in the tropics;
nay, moreover, that his children born there did not
grow up equal to their father in energy and spirit.
So long ago as the period of the Crusades, the
Syrian Creoles, the Syrian-born children of the
Frank soldiers, were complimented with the name
of Pulleins (Pullani), because they were supposed to
be chicken-hearted. The Castilian said the grass
of Valencia was water, and its men were women,
blaming the climate in both cases. The Negro,
then, was black because the sun had burnt him, and
his father before him : the Red Indian was red, or

18 The Anthropological History of Europe.

rather brown, because for generations his ancestors
had been exposed to sun and wind without, and to
dirt and smoke within, their wigwams. Thomas
Price, one of the first men to observe and note
differences of physical character in our own islands,
ascribed the dark hue of the iris, which he found
to prevail in some districts, to the use of coal-
fires ; while others, with more apparent probability,
ascribed the prognathous features of certain of the
Irish peasantry, either to the influence of misery
and starvation, or to the continual exercise of the
jaws upon large quantities of half-boiled potatoes
" with the bones in them." You will recollect that
eloquent description of them, often quoted for
political purposes — "Five feet two inches on an
average, pot-bellied, abortively featured, these
spectres of a people that once were able-bodied
and comely," etc., etc. Montesquieu in France, and
Falconer, and, more recently. Buckle, have pro-
bably been the best expositors of this view of the
subject. Some of their ideas as to the influence of
external agencies on the individual were deserving
of respect and consideration ; but as a rule they
quite ignored the great principles of heredity.

New lights began to play upon the subject from
the speculations of Oken and Lamarck and our own
Robert Chambers ; until finally the full blaze of
the great idea of variation of type through natural
selection was turned upon it by Darwin and
Wallace. Its development checked a current of
thought which had meanwhile been in process of
growth among the anthropologists, more especially

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 19

those of France, who a generation ago were the
undisputed leaders in their own science. The old
idea, derived from the usual interpretation of the
Old Testament, had been that all mankind were
undoubtedly descended from a single pair, and
must therefore have been capable of rapid or even
sudden variations of type, in order to the produc-
tion of the numerous and widely different varieties
which we now see scattered over the world. The
gradual admission of the claims of geology within
the circle of orthodox opinion, only lessened the
difficulties of this view, by greatly and indefinitely
extending the period available for these variations.
But now began a reaction. The j jiench Egypt^-
logists^proclaimed _that_jiumerous types of man
were to be found portrayed in the ancieiTt^walt-
paintings, identical with those at present existing,
and quite as sharply discriminated ; and they began
to ask why — if_5000~y€ar& had done nothjng to bjing^^
about physical_£hangesjn man — why shouldj5Q^00_
years be supposed to have done so much ? Nott and
Gliddon in America, in the Southern States of the
American Union, animated obviously and naturally
by political feeling, urged this question in reference
to the supposed eternal gulf that divided the white
man from the black; and their arguments were
relied on by Southern politicians. Boudin and
Broca, in France, took up the subject of hereditary
stature. There is perhaps no physical character
which might, a priori, be expected to vary more
easily under the operations of different conditions
of life, and more especially of differences in

20 The Anthropological History of Europe.

the nature and relative abundance of nutriment.
Boudin, however, maintained that where large
masses of population were considered, the scarcity
or abundance of food could not be shown to have
any influence; and Broca shewed that in France
stature was an attribute of race, that tall stature
coincided in locality with a fair complexion, a long
head, a certain form of nose, and a tendency to
suffer from decayed teeth and certain other in-
firmities.

Some of those anthropologists who built upon
Broca's facts carried out their deductions into the
region of paradox. Blumenbach and his successors
had acknowledged three, or at most five, great
varieties of the human species : there was Homo
Sapiens albus europaeus, the white man of Europe
and Western Asia ; Homo Sapiens flavus asiaticus,
the yellow or Mongolian man ; Homo Sapiens niger
africanus, the negro, then in process of detection
elsewhere than in Africa ; to these others added
Homo Sapiens ruber americanus, the Red Indian,
whom Blumenbach had made a sub-variety of the
Mongolian ; and the Malay, also nearer to the Mon-
golian than to either of the other two original
varieties, was by some added as a fifth. Next the
Hottentot and the Austral Negro put in their
claims for separation. Then Huxley divided the
dark whites from the blond whites, i.e., for example,
the Spaniards and Berbers from the Swedes. And
the last and best classification that I have seen, that
of Deniker of Paris, admits thirteen divisions, one
of which is entirely constituted by the Aino, the

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 21

hairy men of Yesso and Saghalien, some of whose
blood enters into the composition of the Japanese.

Deniker of course does not claim a separate
origin for all his thirteen varieties of man ; he
simply means that they are all well-defined, recog-
nizable, and practically permanent in the absence of
crossing. Few, if any, now contend for the separate
origin of more than two, or three at the most. But
it was otherwise not so long ago. In evidence
let me cite a particular case. At the foot of the
Himalayas extends a long narrow belt of intensely
malarious forest called the Terai. So pestilential
is the Terai that it used to be said it was death for
a European to sleep within its limits, or to traverse
them by night ; and it was almost equally deadly
to even the neighbouring tribes. But there is a
race of people called the Bodo, who inhabit this
otherwise deserted swamp, and defy its deadly
malaria with impunity. They were first described,
I believe, by Mr. Bryan Hodgson, who wrote a
valuable work on them, and on some other sub-
Himalayan tribes. Their civilization of course is
low, but their Mongoloid heads and features pre-
sent scarcely any peculiarities, when compared with
those of the Lepchas or other hill-tribes of the
Himalaya; the physiognomy may differ a little,
but nothing comes out in the measurements. Now
Barnard Davis, the " doyen " of British anthropo-
logists in his day, was well-acquainted with the
Bodo, so far as he could be without personally
interviewing them. And his opinion was that the
Bodo were an entirely distinct variety of man, who

22 The Anthropological History of Europe.

derived their singular immunity from fever from
their having been created or developed in situ.

Since that time opinions have grown to be a
little less extreme; the polygenists, the advocates
of plurality of origin, have ceased, as I said just
now, to require more than two or three starting-
points for our species, and have begun to attach
more or less importance to the various possible
modifying agencies; while the monogenists are
more ready to acknowledge the feebleness of the
direct action of climate, food, etc., and the slowness
of the changes produced in other ways. Before
these parties can come to anything like an agree-
ment, it will be necessary for the biologist to settle
a great question which lies behind or at the bottom
of all these disputes — that of the descent by inheri-
tance of acquired characters.

I will now proceed to enumerate a few of the
supposed modifying influences : —

First comes the direct influence of climate, of

sunshine, temperature, moisture, malaria.^ Of this

^/ we now hear comparatively little, though there is

more evidence of the deteriorative effect of malaria

\ on physical type than is generally known.

Secondly, the doubtlessly powerful influence of
natural selection, of which new modes of work-
ing are continually being found out or suspected.
Hereunder, for example, comes the most plausible

^ With the progress of microscopic pathology, the domain of true
malaria is constantly being circumscribed, and may perhaps be ulti-
mately annihilated. But I use the terra for the sake of convenience.

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 23

theory ever yet brought forward to account for the
origin of the blond complexion, that of Mr. Buchan
of Toronto, who, choosing Southern Scandinavia
as its most probable birthplace, shows how a fine
transparent skin might give its owner a slight
advantage in a somewhat cool and damp climate
which it would not have elsewhere, and which
indeed might be positively detrimental in a hot
country, especially where the air is also dry.
Looking at this theory with historical side-lights
and qualifications, and taking note of the slow-
ness with which so slight an advantage might be
expected to make itself felt, there seems very little
to object to it, except the description given by
the Chinese annalists of the Woo-Sun, and other
green-eyed, red-haired tribes who once inhabited
Central Asia. And this objection may be some-
what weakened if we accept the opinions of many
geologists as to the recent existence of a great
West- Asiatic Sea, of which the Euxine, the Caspian
and the Aral are the dwindling remains, and which
would have caused the climate of that region to be
much damper than it now is.

Malaria evidently works much by natural selec-
tion. In New Orleans, for example, the fair races of
Northern Europe, including our own, are said to
suffer most from yellow fever, and the negroes
least; while the dark races of Southern Europe,
Huxley's Melanochroi, occupy an intermediate posi-
tion, the French moreover standing worse than the
more southern Spaniards, Portuguese and Italians.
It would probably be impossible for the Anglo-

C

/')

24 The Anthropological History of Europe.

American permanently to hold his ground in New
Orleans, without the presence of the other races
whom he utilises; and if he does succeed in doing
so, it is likely that the blonds may in course of time
almost entirely disappear from his ranks. Their
only hope seems to lie in the total abolition of so-
called malarial fevers, but experience at Havana
seems to indicate that this is not impossible.

It is my opinion, though I cannot prove it, that
a process of selection, which may perhaps be called
natural, works against the perpetuation of certain
types in our cities. Tall, rapidly-developing chil-
dren, and especially those of fair complexion, have
seemed to me less able to thrive without fresh air
and abundant food than others. And tall striplings
are more apt to suffer from consumption than short,
stocky, slowly-developing young men. Since this
was written. Dr. Shrubsall has collected much evi-
dence on this subject, shewing, for example, that
the blonds are more apt to be cut off by scarletina
and acute rheumatism. These may be among the
causes of the lower stature of our town artisans and
labourers, as compared with the professional and
well-to-do classes. This difference, as you are
probably aware, is pretty considerable. Roberts
aud Rawson, summing up the wide field of induc-
tion yielded by the schedules of the British Asso-
ciation Committee, found it to amount to quite two
inches; and I myself found nearly that difference
between the average stature of an upper-class com-
pany and of some artisan companies in the Bristol
Volunteer Rifle Corps.

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 25

Sir James Simpson pointed out, a good many
years ago, that nature had placed a barrier in the
way of the too great development of the human
brain, so that infants with very large heads usually
perished at their entry into the world. And I am v/
pretty certain that in this matter nature favours the
dolichocephals, the long-headed, rather than the
broad -headed type. This conclusion I arrived at
many years ago, at a time when the great Maternity
Hospital of Vienna afforded me much material for
observation.

It is commonly believed, and Alfred Wallace,
in particular among naturalists, has insisted upon
the consideration, that whereas natural selection
operated very strongly in early stages of society
in the direction of physical improvement, by the
elimination of the smaller and weaker individuals,
civilization has now put an end to, or at least greatly
restricted, its action. There is, of course, a con-
siderable amount of truth in this doctrine ; but if
one particlar form of selection, that which may be
styled selection by combat, is no longer largely
operative, there are other forms of it, whether
rightly to be called " natural " or not we need not
discuss, which are still at work among us, and some
of which may conceivably be altering our physical
type.

Conjugal selection is one of these. Francis Galton
has pointed out that the slackening or positive arrest
of intellectual progress during the Middle Ages was
due in some measure to the fact that men who had
more brain than muscle naturally gravitated toward
3

^

26 The Anthropological History of Europe.

the monasteries, and being there shut up, and pro-
hibited from marriage, did not reproduce their kind,
while the sturdy blockheads who remained outside
the convent walls did do so. The anthropologist
in this country has great difficulty in obtaining
facilities for measuring mediaeval skulls : popular
and even clerical prejudices on the subject are a
serious obstacle ; ^ but I have always taken advan-
tage of any such opportunities; and I have been
struck with the fine frontal development of some
monkish skulls, while those of persons supposed to
have belonged to the mediaeval chivalry were often
small and poorly developed. This observation evi-
dently corroborates Galton's idea.

The possible effect in this case would be an al-
teration in the dimensions of the skull, particularly
in the frontal region. But it is quite conceivable
that the prevailing complexion or colour of hair and
eyes might be altered in this kind of way. Fashions
change in regard to the popularity of colours ; and
they differ in different countries. Red hair fur-
nishes the best instance. Red-haired persons do not
now constitute the majority in any tribe or nation,
not even among the Voguls and Votiaks of the
Uralian region ; but there is some reason for think-
ing that red hair was once much more prevalent
than now. In most parts of India it hardly occursM

— - -^

^The late Dean Macneil of Ripon buried, unmeasured and un-
chronicled, a most valuable collection of mediaeval bones, which had
occupied the crypt of the minster for centuries before he came to
disturb it.

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. TJ

among the Brahmins;^ yet it is pretty certain that
it once did, else why were Brahmins forbidden, as it
is said they were, by the laws of Manu, to marry
red-haired women. Blonds and red-haired persons
do still occur about the Hindu Kush, among the
tribes from whom the Brahmins are supposed to
have been emigrants; and from that fact, as well
as from the existence of the law, we may con-
clude that they continued to appear, in small
numbers doubtless, among the Brahmins domi-
ciled in India, and that no unfavourable action
of climate had extinguished them. But obedience
to the law in question would certainly in the
course of time annihilate the tendency to their
production.

In Germany the colour seems to have been un-
popular for ages, curiously enough, as it belonged
more particularly to the nobles and freemen, who
were of true Germanic blood. Red-haired men are,
and have long been, known as "foxes" among the
peasantry. So far as we can trust the descriptions
left us by classical writers — I confess I do not trust
them implicitly — the Germans were once as pre-
vailingly red-haired as we know, on surer grounds,
they were long-headed ; but at present red hair is
not very common among them, and when it occurs
it is not like the brilliant Highland red that we are
familiar with. May not fashion, operating through

* I have learned from Dr. Burgess that a small tribe of Brahmins
exists somewhere to the south of Bombay among whom red or light
hair is not uncommon.

28 The Anthropological History of Europe.

conjugal selection, have had something to do with
its diminution.

In Britain there have been changes in fashion
with regard to its estimation, and during the pre-
sent generation the aesthetic revival, bringing to
bear the pretty persistent admiration of it expressed
by artists and poets, have rendered it highly popu-
lar, at least among the upper classes. So it was
during most of the sixteenth century ; for I believe
it was flattery in Holbein that led to its appearing
so frequently on his canvas ; and we may apply the
same test which convicts the golden-haired beauties
of Venice in the palmy days of her artists ; we may
examine comparatively the portraits of the men of
the same date, when we shall find no such pre-
ponderance of auburn and golden hues as in the
other sex.

Some years ago I endeavoured to investigate this
question of the possible influence of conjugal selec-
tion on colour, and the ultimate result to which
I came, from the observation of nearly 600 women,
was that among the labouring classes of Bristol
fewer of the red-haired and of the black -haired
women entered into matrimony than of the fair,
brown, or dark-brown. I do not think the basis
was broad enough to sustain much weight of induc-
tion; but, as I have stated elsewhere, if the case
were really as my figures seemed to show, and if
the same condition of things were to endure for a
few generations, the discouragement of the pro-
duction of hair pigment would be so great that we
should have a general prevalance of dull shades of

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 29

brown, to the confusion and despair of poets and
artists.

It is very difficult to estimate or analyse at all
satisfactorily the power which different marriage-
rates may have upon the reproduction of different
elements of population. That it may be very great
has been shown by Francis Galton, in his Record of
Family Faculties, where, taking two populations
of equal number, in one of which the women are
supposed to marry at the age of 20, and the other
at 29, all other things being equal, he calculates that
in 324 years the former group will have increased
from 100 to 535, while the latter will have decreased
from 100 to 23. "The general result," says he, "is
that the group B gradually disappears, and the
group A more than supplants it."

Of course the matter is not quite so simple as it
appears in Galton's statement ; there are considera-
tions, for example, as to the relative mortality of
children, of premature, of mature, and of too late
marriages, which cannot be very accurately weighed,
and which are here put aside ; but there can be no
doubt of the substantial truth of the conclusion,
that in a few hundred years the community A would
be a good many times more numerous than the com-
munity B, which latter would be well on its way
towards extinction.

Yet the disadvantage at which community B is
placed, in this imaginary comparison, is probably
not so great as that at which some sections or
classes in a nation are frequently placed in relation
to the rest. Let us allow that in the days of

30 The Anthropological History of Europe.

long-period military service the enlisted men were
physically above the average in stature and vigour.
I conjecture that such was really the case while
the standard for recruits was high, and when the
Scottish Highlanders and the south-country and
Irish peasantry were still enlisting. It is clear that
these men, as a class, could not have reproduced the
species to any great extent ; such of them as escaped
all the dangers of a soldier's career returned home
comparatively late in life, and would be in a worse
position in this respect by far than Galton's com-
munity B. And inasmuch as they were so, the
general physical standard of the next generation
would, we conclude, be slightly lowered. It was
lowered in France by Napoleon's wars.

But soldiers are not the only class in which the
relative frequency of marriage is lessened, and the
average age at marriage raised, by the circum-
stances of their profession. In this country, and at
the present time, this applies more or less to the
(/'whole of the upper middle classes, the best educated
portion of the community, who will therefore con-
tribute far less than their share to the mass of the
coming generation.

In most countries, and at most periods, the in-
fluence of caste-division has made itself felt in
this direction. To some races, reduction to slavery
has been merely a deferred death-sentence; thus
nations perished, after passing through the status
of slavery, during the expansion of the Roman
power; and the Indians of the Antilles withered
away under the Spanish tyranny. The freemen of

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 31

ancient Greece seem to have multiplied their noble
type of man at a very rapid rate ; and their civiliza-
tion was based upon slavery. But the rule is that
a governing caste multiplies far less freely than a
subordinate one. There are several obvious causes
for this. The prudential check tells more on those
who have something to lose, than on those who
have nothing.

Thus, in the old border ballad. Sir James Murray
is quite willing to risk his life by rising in arms
against the King :

" The king has gifted my lands langsyne ;
It canna be nae waur with me ! "

while Andrew Murray, the more prosperous mem-
ber of the family, takes a more anxious view —

" Judge gif it stands na hard wi' me
To enter against a king wi* crown,
An' put my lands in jeopardie ? "

Then the ruling or superior caste is usually and
naturally the military one, and subject to all the
risks of military life.^ But most important is
usually the caste - feeling against giving the
daughters of the family to inferiors in rank, even
when no other husbands are available. Hence in-
fanticide and nunneries, and gradual decline in
numbers of the legitimate members of the caste;
while the subordinate castes, wherein marriage is
more facile, multiply and rise to power.

^ " Rara est in nobilitate senectus," is the motto on the fine old
monument of the Herberts in Montgomery Church.

32 The A nthropological History of Europe.

The great expenditure of life among mariners,
many of whom perish unmarried at early ages,
must at least diminish the rate of increase among
maritime communities.
^ Among people who emigrate from their native
country to colonise another and a vacant or a
thinly-peopled one, divers and contrary influences
seem to work. In the beginning, while there
are still difficulties with hostile aborigines, scanty
supplies of food, ignorance of the effects of climate,
and so forth, there is usually great expenditure of
life and little re-production; but as the colony
grows and thrives, and receives a sufficient supply
of the female element, the birth-rate usually be-
comes exceedingly high, and multiplication rapid.
Perhaps the most conspicuous modern instance of
this is to be found in the province of Quebec,
where the French Canadians, assisted probably by
the cross of Red Indian blood which brings their
constitution into better harmony with the climate,
have multiplied in a century and a half from a few
thousands up to more than a million.

In Australasia, too, as well as in the United States
of America, the rate of increase was for a long time
exceedingly high, though in both it seems to be now
diminishing with the increase of density of popula-
tion, and of the social difficulties thereby entailed.
At the same time the artisan population of the
towns seems to contribute the greater proportion of
the increase, while among the adventurous pioneers
in the back settlements the rate is comparatively
low. The relevance of this may not immediately

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 33

appear; but it will seem more distinct when I call
your attention to the fact that types of men, different
physically as well as morally, gravitate towards dif-
ferent lines of life. Thus Calvinistic theology is
attractive to the man of melancholic, not to the
man of sanguine temperament. Now, these tem-
peraments have respectively their external signs,
and do not occur with equal frequency in all races.
There are many other factors in the destiny of an
individual besides his physical constitution ; but "^^^^
nevertheless I believe you will find that an unusual
proportion of men with dark straight hair enter the
ministry; that the red-whiskered men are apt to be
given to sporting and horseflesh ; and that tall,
vigorous blond long-headed men, lineal descendants
of the Vikings, or of the Athelings who "won Eng-
land, and refused not the hard sword-play," still
furnish a large contingent to our travellers and
emigrants. We shall see presently that that was
the physical type of the Germans who took part in
the overthrow of the Roman Empire, and in what
their countrymen — it would be a little too bold to
say "their descendants" — call the Wandering of
Nations (Volkswanderung) ; and it would seem to
have been also that of the leaders, at least, of the
Gauls, who colonised Galatia and brought home the
treasures of Greece and Italy to Toulouse; and it
has at present more representatives among the
Scandinavians and ourselves than among other
peoples. In this way, and by the sparing of the tall
youths in the Australian life of open air and abund-
ant food, one might account for the prevalence of

34 The Anthropological History of Europe.

tall, fair types among the colonial-born (the " corn-
stalks"), a prevalence which is generally asserted,
and which accords with my own observation.

The direct influence of the kind or quality of
food, apart from its sufficiency or insufficiency in
quality, was a favourite point among the philos-
ophers of the last century. The mild Hindu was
supposed to owe his postulated mildness to a diet
of rice, the Briton his martial ferocity to beef and
beer. Some of our modern vegetarians make use of
this line of argument. It would be easy, of course,
to cite countervailing instances. Thus the peaceful
Eskimos are perforce and exclusively eaters of fish
and flesh : while the Maoris, the Fijians, the Fans,
all ruthless cannibals, were the outcome of genera-
tions of habitual vegetarianism. Let us look rather
at the physical side, which our high-flown ancestors
rather neglected. Can the nature or abundance of
food alter the colour or form of the individual?
and, if so, can the alterations be transmitted to his
descendants ?

I have never happened to see this question of
colour-change in man by food discussed ; though
I have little doubt that it has been so. It is
confidently stated that the plumage of canaries
and some other singing-birds can be considerably
altered, in the direction of red or orange, by feed-
ing them with spicy stimulating food, red pepper
and the like. Possibly the red colouring matter
may be transmitted from the food to the feathers,
or perhaps some change in the minute structure of
the plumes may be brought about. Anyhow, I am

The Aryan Question — Variation of Type. 35

informed that the beautiful colours of feathers are
due more to the lamellar structural arrangement
than to a deposit of pigment, which gives most
of the colour to human skin and hair. Still, it
seems quite possible that the production of pig-
ment might be increased by a diet that mildly
stimulated the organs which produce it. It is
apparently lessened in wasting disease.

As to form, the probability is certainly greater.
Robert Gordon Latham thought that both form
and colour might in some degree depend on the
geological structure of the habitat, and advised me,
when I was collecting the materials for my work on
the Stature and Bulk of Man in the British Isles,
to pay particular attention to the carboniferous
limestone. I was not successful in making out any-
thing like what he expected : in a country like ours,
where comparatively little of the food consumed is
raised on the spot, the differences between the pro-
ductions of several geological districts are not so
likely to be operative as in other lands ; though the
absence or abundance of lime and magnesia in the
drinking-water might be equally so here as else-
where. Durand de Gros finds physical differences
between the people of the calcareous and the
granitic parts of the Rouergue (in the south of
France), which he cannot account for by difference
of race: the dwellers in the former are, as one
would expect, the better developed, while those
in the Segalas, the granitic country, are smaller,
inferior in form and complexion, less strong but
more active. He thinks that he finds a difference

36 The Anthropological History of Europe.

even in the colour of the hair, the Segalas men
being the darker; but that may depend on the
seizure of the better land by the more vigorous
and fairer race.

But may not the superabundance of lime in food
and water tell also on the form of the skull ? We
know that in rickets the deficiency or malassimila-
tion of lime leads, among other consequences, to
deformity of the skull in the way of greater round-
ness. This is due to the thinness of the bones and
to defective or postponed ossification of the sutures.
On the other hand, excess of phosphate of lime in
food seems to conduce to good physical develop-
ment. Thus in Switzerland the most robust men
are found in Nidwalden and Ticino, two cantons
which agree in only one discoverable point, viz.,
the great consumption of cheese, the aliment
most rich in phosphate of lime. "Then," says
Schaaffhausen, "may not a superabundance of
phosphate of lime in the food, such as would
be apt to occur among a wild uncivilised [hunt-
ing and pastoral.''] people, lead to premature ossifi-
cation of the cranial sutures and thus to contraction
of breadth and increase of length of skull, which
is precisely what we find in the old long-headed
denizens of Central Europe." The only objection
that I can see is that the Mongols and other races
of Central Asia, who live very much in the manner
contemplated, feeding on flesh and milk, have not
long but broad and round skulls.

LECTURE II.

VARIATION— PRIMEVAL MAN— SUCCES-
SION OF RACES.

Opinions of contemporary anthropologists — Kollman's five per-
manent European types — Deniker on importance of hair as a
character — Schaaffhauaen on inferiority of primitive man and
of the longheaded type — Ancient types : the Canstatt : the
Cro-magnon : the Eskimo — Neolithic period : brachykephals
abroad ; none in Britain — Bronze periods — Swarming of suc-
cessive races : Phoenicians, Greeks, Gauls, Romans, Teutons,
Saracens, Slavs, Turco-mongols.

TJAVING touched lightly the nature of the agents
-Li- which may be supposed to influence and alter
the physical aspect of mankind, let us now enquire
what are the opinions of anthropologists as to their
actual potency. These opinions differ very widely.
I will indicate what may be considered the extreme
views, both held by men of light and leading. Thus,
Kollmann of Basel expresses himself to the following
effect : —

" Many observations have been made use of as
indications of a power in external influences,
slow in action indeed, but undeniable ; and some
have ascribed very great scope to the variability
of European types since their appearance at the
diluvial period until now. It is, however, ques-
tionable whether any kind of modifying changes
in the typical peculiarities of the skeleton, or the
more prominent bodily features, have really oc-

38 The Anthropological History of Europe.

curred. Their race-characters were in my belief
already so settled and confirmed when the Euro-
pean races first arrived here, that they remain
constant under the most powerful modifying
agencies, and that the whole period which has
since elapsed has not been sufficient to produce
even moderate changes."

The very considerable differences in physical
aspect which we daily observe within the limits of
a single nationality are due, in his opinion, to mix-
ture of blood, the actual limits of variation in a pure
race being comparatively narrow. He recognizes
five separate race-types in Europe, which he dis-
criminates according to the relative lengths and
breadths of head and face.^ Thus one has a long head
and a narrow face : this type preponderated greatly
in the ancient Germans, and specimens of it are very
common in the British Isles. Another has a long
head but a broad face, narrow orbits, and a dyshar-
monic type: this was the old Cro-magnon race of
the caves of Perigord, in France. The broad-headed
long-faced type is nowadays the prevailing one in
the Tyrol and Bavaria proper. The type with both
broad head and broad face prevails among the Lapps
and in the Caucasus; and wherever Mongoloid tribes
have settled in force, as in parts of Eastern Europe.

1 It may as well be noted here that Anders Retzius, who first divided
mankind into longheads and shortheads, dolichokephals and brachy-
kephals, put the limit of the two at a breadth equal to 80 per cent,
of the length. Nowadays, those with ratios between 75 and 80 are
reckoned as intermediate, those beyond 85 are called hyperbrachy-
kephals, and so forth. The distinction of long and short faces is made
on a similar principle, i.e., it depends on the relative, not the absolute,
length and breadth of the face.

Variation of Type. 39

The mesokephalic (shall we say middle-headed, or
having skulls of medium breadth?) with a broad
face, occurred among the prehistoric peoples : the
well-known skull from the Judge's Cave at Gib-
raltar may have belonged to it : in the historic
period it was common among the Helvetii, and at
the present day among the Franconian and Thur-
ingean Germans. But what Kollmann chiefly in-
sists on is, that all these types occurred in Europe
at early periods, that even then, every community,
so far as we can judge, included representatives of
several or all of them, and that such is the case still,
the types intertwining like the strands of a rope,
but seldom, or with the utmost slowness, mingling
like the waters of so many rivers.

De Quatrefages says, "The companions of the
Mammoth and Reindeer have not disappeared, they
are still among us." Of that I entertain no doubt :
I have myself, once and again, encountered in the
flesh the man of Neanderthal; but Kollmann goes
further: he says — "The European in all his varieties
or races is ready and fit for anything, whenever we
drag his bones to the daylight from under the earth-
crust; he was ready when he kept company with
the Mammoth. He had nothing inferior, neither in
the build of his braincase, nor in the formation of
his face, in itself, but was ' homo sapiens ' in his best
form already in the diluvium, then again in the
Reindeertide, and in the pile-dwellings. If we are
ever to find out anything about the differentiation
of man into sub-species and races, we must go fur-
ther back, perhaps into the Miocene age."

40 The Anthropological History of Europe.

Let me here say, parenthetically, of Kollmann's
five types, that though there is much to be said in
their favour, they appear to me somewhat too arbi-
trary in their limitations, and too few in number.
Thus we have in Britain, for example, two varieties
of his leptoprosopic dolichokephalic (long-headed
and long-faced type), discriminated in several points,
and particularly, as a rule, in colour : the one is of
Anglo-Saxon, the other probably of Iberian origin.
Of the colour of prehistoric races we can unfortun-
ately know nothing, except by inference ; even of
that of early historic ones but little; for hair, though
one of the least destructible of animal tissues, is
liable, under some circumstances, to post-mortem
changes of colour. But as to its importance in
classification, let us hear Deniker, a great authority
in that department. " On the whole, it seems to us
that the measurements of different parts of the body
constitute very good characters of the second and
third order, we believe we are in the right in main-
taining that the characters of the primary divisions
(of mankind) ought to be drawn from the nature of
the hair and the colour of the skin."

To return. Schaaffhausen, differing from Koll-
mann, enumerates the various marks of inferiority,
the various reminders of simian anatomical features,
which he finds among the skulls of primeval men,
and more than one of which are apt to be found
combined in the early long-headed races. Among
these are the receding forehead with swollen eye-
brow ridges, as in the Neanderthal and Spy and
Briix men, and the underjaw wanting in chin, as

Variation of Type. 41

in the La Naulette specimen. "With a receding
forehead are generally associated," he says, "a pro-
minent muzzle, large teeth, high-placed temporal
lines, strong occipital ridges, simple sutures, small
cranial capacity. In primitive longheads the tem-
poral squama or scale often reaches to the frontal,
instead of being separated by the wing of the
sphenoid bone; and this often occurs also in African
negroes, in Australians, Peruvians, and Mongols ; it
occurs also in anthropoid apes, except in orangs.
Or sometimes, though it does not reach so far, yet
it is long and low." Other low characters are, says
Schaaffhausen, a short sagittal suture, a narrow, flat
frontal : so too the occipital scale standing out like a
bowl from the back of the head (baothrokephaly), and
the prominent parietal bosses, for these are remains
of childish forms. (The bowl-like protuberance, as
we shall see, is very characteristic of the Alemannic
conquerors of Swabia and Switzerland.) Retzius
thought, it is true, that the projecting occiput,
being a result of greater development of the pos-
terior lobe, indicated a noble or advanced type ; but
this Schaaffhausen disputes. Having the greatest
breadth in the parietal region is a low feature : this
is found in the famous skull of Engis, as well as in
Australians. Malay skulls, which belong to a low
form of shorthead, have also the greatest breadth
near the parietal bosses. A long flat extending
from below these bosses to the temples rank low;
he means here, apparently, flatness of the temporo-
frontal region, which is very general among the
Gael, whether Irish or Scottish, and was common

4

42 The Anthropological History of Europe.

among Romano-Britons, but much less so among
the Saxon English and Scandinavians.

Add to these, flatness of the floor of the nostrils,
flat nasal bones,^ large molar teeth, elliptic palate,
small occipital tuberosity (for the tuberosity has to
do with the erect position). Simplicity of sutures,
and early closing thereof, go with low organization:
this simplicity was commoner among fossil dogs
than among modern house dogs, and it is found in
several of the prehistoric long skulls, as those of
Engis and Nieder-Ingelheim, and in the Batavus
Genuinus of Blumenbach.

Schaaffhausen thinks, moreover, that the tem-
poral muscles, and indeed the other kephalic muscles,
all work towards lengthening of the skull; and
large temporal muscles go with the use of the coarse
food of the savage life. Finally, he says that though
in some cases the skull may grow large and broad
simply from want of lime, the head does acquire
that last increase of size and development which
corresponds to increase of intelligence, through an
enlargement in breadth. Against this I should be
disposed to make use of the fact that adult heads
are relatively to their length narrower than those of
children ; but perhaps Schaaffhausen would account
for that by muscular action. I will here simply
mention some varieties in other parts of the skele-
ton, which occur frequently or usually in some
ancient races, whereas they are now rare. Such are

1 1 think most ancient skulls had good and prominent noses ; but
the nasal bones are seldom cognizable.

Primeval Man — Succession of Races. 43

the pilaster-, or columnar-femur, the flattened tibia
(platyknemia), the perforation of the lower humerus,
forms whose utility has apparently ceased, but which
are not necessarily to be called low.

To sum up this view of the transformation
question, "Der Mensch," says Buschan, reviewing
Schaaffhausen, "ist nichts weniger als ein Dauer-
typus." Man is in nowise an unchangeable entity.

Before proceeding to divide Europe into great
historical provinces, on a basis partly political,
partly ethnological, it may be well to give a brief
sketch of its general anthropological history, es-
pecially of that portion of such history as was
prior to the formation of the present divisions and
nations.

Our knowledge of this is more advanced as re-
gards the west and south-west, partly because in
the quaternary period the north and east were
not inhabited, partly because civilization is more
advanced and science more cultivated in the west
and north-west ; and as France, Belgium, and por-
tions of the countries lying next to the east of
them, combine both these advantages, it is here
that anthropological history may be said to begin,
and here only that plausible attempts have been
made to minutely subdivide the prehistoric periods,
in accordance with their archaeological products.

The general results may be thus stated: The
oldest human forms that have been found and
located geographically, or rather palaeontologically,
with some approach to certitude, are long-headed —
dolichokephalic, and that very distinctly. And we

44 The Anthropological History of Europe.

may go so far as to say that all, or almost all the
crania may be distributed under two types, though
whether we are entitled to say two races is not
yet quite clear: the French say so, but Virchow was
doubtful. The first of these was the Canstatt type,
so called from the place where the first specimen
was discovered ; though the Neanderthal skull is a
much better known example. It is long rather than
narrow, deficient in height, with thick bones, huge
frowning brows, low forehead and prominent occi-
* put, protruding in the form which the German
anatomists call kiigelig (like a bowl). Some very
low-type chinless lower jaws have been ascribed to
this type ; but the attribution is not always clear :
in the modern skulls which have been supposed to
reproduce the type the chin is often strong and pro-
minent. Most of these skulls have been found in
caves in the mountain limestone ; and it may be
suggested, that some of their peculiarities may
have been connected with too great a supply of
calcareous salts, whence perhaps the premature
closing (synostosis) of the sagittal suture and the
enormous development of the bony browridges.^

The other long type is that called the Cro-
magnon. Here also the head is long, narrow rela-
tively rather than absolutely, moderate in height;
the capacity is often large compared with modern
averages; the forehead is well developed, but the
browridges not so large as in the Canstatt type.

^ Barnard Davis ascribed most of the peculiarities of the Neanderthal
skull to premature synostosis.

Primeval Man — Succession of Races. 45

The occiput is large and capacious, but has not the
marked protuberance just now described. The
orbits are squarely formed and low; so that the
eyes were probably narrow (as in many Irishmen),
the nose of medium breadth (mesorhine). The
limbs were robust; but the femur and tibia ex-
hibited the pilastral and platyknemic forms. These
men may have been savages; but they were capable
savages, at least. The frontal development is dis-
tinctively better than in the Canstatt types.

There are probably other quaternary skull forms
yet to be discovered. In fact, Professor Testut of
Lyons has given us an elaborate memoir on one
such, discovered at Chancelade. It belonged to
a man of small stature, but it is large and long,
differs decidedly from either the Canstatt or the
Cro-magnon form, and seems to resemble the
well-known Eskimo variety. You may be aware
that our own Boyd-Dawkins published, years ago,
his conjecture that the Eskimos, or a branch of
them, had once dwelt in north-western Europe.

There are others, too, who think there was a
chasm, an absolute hiatus, between these palaeo-
lithic people and those who followed them ; that
the former perished utterly or wandered away
before the neolithic folk arrived, bringing with
them the beginnings of civilisation. I don't think
anyone on the Continent now holds that view.
Huxley pronounced against it, though not very
strongly. For myself, I am not a geologist, and
perhaps cannot appreciate the evidence from that
side; but I know that these old types are repre-

46 The Anthropological History of Europe.

sented among us at the present day, and I believe it
is by right of heredity. St. Mansuy of Toul, and
Kai Lykke, a famous Danish noble, belonged to that
of Canstatt, and so, it is said, did King Robert
Bruce, though he had good brains as well as thews
and sinews.^ I have seen in the flesh, as I said just
now, more than one exquisite example of it ; and of
the Cro-magnon I have seen a great many, without
having gone so far as the Canary Islands to look for
them.

"Nor need we blush," said the noble Broca,
" to own for ancestors those rude quaternary
hunters who knew how to conquer animals more
terrible and more real than the monsters com-
bated by Hercules, and who, first in the world,
long before the Assyrians and the Egyptians, lit
the torch of art. They knew not electricity nor
steam ; they were not armed with metallic wea-
pons and with gunpowder; but, weak as they
were, and with weapons of stone only, they sus-
tained against nature a struggle that was not
without grandeur ; and the progress which they
realised at the cost of such efforts, prepared the
soil on which civilisation was to grow."

These were the two races, if two they were, to
which the great majority of quaternary crania may
be referred, and it seems hardly likely, now, that
this conclusion will be disturbed, that longheads
constituted the chief population of Western Europe
in those times. Still, the broadheads, the brachy

^ The skull of Bruce has prominent brows and a receding forehead,
but its breadth does not consist with the Canstatt type.

Primeval Man — Succession of Races. 47

kephals, were not unrepresented, at least in the
latter part of the period. The palaeolithic antiquity
of a strongly brachykephalic skull found at Nagy
Szap in Hungary, is said to be unimpeachable ; and
in Belgium, in the reindeer period, those found by
Dupont in the neighbourhood of Furfooz are at
least on the confines of brachykephaly, and in other
respects are of an entirely different type to any of
the quaternary long skulls. In Germany, too,
brachykephalic skulls are said to have been dug out
of the loess.

With the period of recency in geology, and that
of polished stone in archaeology, we gain a great
access of light, and in some countries an abundance
of material. Whereas the two principal long-headed
types had been scattered here and there, apparently
dove-tailing with each other, we now find a central
type apparently derived from the Cro-magnon,
though softened in its more striking characteristics,
predominating in France, probably in Spain, and
certainly in Britain, where the principal occupants
of the longbarrows nearly always display it. An-
other, having a relation to that of Canstatt, seems
to abound in the more northern countries, in
Germany and Sweden and through all the great
plain of northern and eastern-central Europe. The
brachykephals, whether or not they have received
an accession from the east, whether or not it is they
who have now brought our domestic animals and
cultivated plants from Asia, are certainly much
more in evidence; in central France they have con-
tests with the indigenous longheads, over whom

48 The Anthropological History of Europe.

they seem to prevail : there and in Italy they mix
with their predecessors; and one may find in one
grave skulls with breadth-indices from little over
70 to nearly 90, a thing hardly conceivable in the
same race unless from the intervention of disease.
In the dolmens of France, in the pile-works or lake
villages of Switzerland, in the caves of higher Bel-
gium, in the kitchen-middens and tumuli of Scan-
dinavia, in the Hiinnebetten or Giant's Graves of
Germany, we find the same admixture, but never
in England. Here in Scotland, too, as Sir Daniel
Wilson pointed out, the form of long skull, which
he called boat-shaped, prevailed pretty exclusively,
while the few Irish skulls which may belong to the
period are also long, and have the modern Hibernian
aspect.

We have seen, then, that history in Europe
generally begins comparatively late, in fact only
somewhere in the last millennium before our era.
For a good many years, of course, we had known
that the domain of history, as distinguished from
mere tradition and conjecture, extended backwards
in Mesopotamia and still more decidedly in Egypt,
far beyond what was the case in Europe. Only in
the last decade of the nineteenth century did we
begin to learn, under the auspices of Petrie and
other Egyptologists, that the area of historical day-
light might be extended from Egypt and Western
Asia over the Egean and its western coasts. Under
Schliemann, Homer, from a purely poetical or
mythical, assumed a half historic character; and
under Arthur Evans and Sayce and quite a crowd of

Primeval Man — Succession of Races. 49

skilled workers, the prehistoric in Crete is assuming
form and solidity. The early observers in this field
dealt with ethnography rather than with physical
anthropology; but latterly Myers, Duckworth and
Hawes have corroborated the conjecture that the
early Cretans, the " Minoans," were of what most of
us called the Mediterranean type, resembling the
early occupants of South Italy and Spain. They
seem to have been short of stature, lithe of frame,
and dark of complexion, and their heads were dis-
tinctly narrow as a rule. It is probable that the
same race, pushing northwards, occupied the Pelo-
ponnese and other of the more accessible parts of
the Balkan peninsula. But before Homer's day
these primitive Greeks appear to have been sub-
jected by the Achaeans, a militant Aryan-tongued
race from the north of Central Europe, at least
partly blond, and probably also longheaded. On
them followed the Dorians, probably of Illyrian
race, and broader in head than the Achaeans or their
Minoan predecessors. We know that they not only
dominated large portions of continental Greece, but
also settled in Crete, where the Sphakiots, a tall
race inclining to brachykephaly, and occupying
the western mountains, claim Dorian descent.
Similarly in the eastern horn of Crete a new ele-
ment coming from Caria or from somewhere in
Asia minor where the fundamental breed of man
was broadheaded, seems to have altered the original
Minoan, Lybian or Mediterranean head in the
direction of greater width.

The introduction of Bronze into Europe does not

9
/

50 The Anthropological History of Europe.

appear to have been accompanied by that of any new
element of population, at all events not on a large
scale. The Phoenicians probably settled in small
numbers on the coasts where they traded, for ex-
ample, in Sardinia ; but except in Cornwall, where
I am inclined to think their type occasionally crops
up, it is difficult to distinguish any influence they
might have had from that of the later Saracens.
The Etruscans had their own skull type, in my
opinion more Semitic than aught else; but its in-
fluence was, of course, limited to a small area, and
belonged rather to a later period. The one country
where the age of bronze seems really to have been
ushered in by a new race is our own, where barrows
or interments that yield objects of bronze, alone or
with flint, may be reckoned on, where the bodies
have not been cremated, to yield also short broad
skulls of a pretty uniform type, almost identical
with those which are found, though not exclusively,
in certain stone-age interments in Denmark.

When we were children, ancient history was pre-
sented to us in very compendious form, that of a
succession of Empires pictured in the Book of the
Prophet Daniel. And the history of Europe since
the Bronze Age might similarly be portrayed as that
of the successive swarmings of so many different
races, some already domiciled within its bounds,
others having their centre of dispersion outside.

Thus the Phoenicians, having served themselves
heirs to the maritime power of the Minoans of
Crete, explored the coasts, and even settled here
and there in small trading colonies, and by the mere

Primeval Man — Succession of Races. 51

contact of commerce and eastern civilization sup-
plied a motive power to break up the existing
equilibrium. The subsequent beginnings of the
abortive Carthaginian empire were a further de-
velopment of Phoenician enterprise, but from what
we know of their mode of warfare, their employ-
'ment of mercenaries, etc., it is not likely that much
of their blood was left to run into the veins even of
the Sicilians and Sardinians, where, if anywhere, we
should seek it. Collignon says he cannot find it in
Tunis, where one would perhaps have expected it to
be strongest.

Next come the palmy days of the Greeks, even
then a mingled strain, of which the ruling element
seems to have been longheaded and largely blond,
while the subordinate ones may have been dark. I
do not quite hold with Ingoldsby —

" These well-booted Greeks,
Their Egyptian descent was a question of weeks,"

but think it likely that the intercourse between
Greece and Egypt was not wholly one-sided. An q
lUyrian element is certain; a Turanian one prob-
able.

The Greeks appear to have been, in their best
days, an extremely prolific race, so much so that
they were able within a moderate number of gener-
ations to Hellenize the coasts of Sicily and Lower
Italy (Magna Graecia) as well as the Ionian and
neighbouring coasts of Asia, and those of Gyrene
and of the Cimmerian Bosphorus.

Of the spread of the Kelts we know very much

52 The Anthropological History of Europe.

less : in the first place, we hardly know how to call
the wandering mercenary warriors who were the
terror of the civilized south; I just now said "Kelts,"
but will amend the word, and say "Gauls" instead.
For at some period unknown the longheads of the
north-east would seem to have avenged their long-
headed brethren, the men of Cro-magnon and the
cavern of L'Homme Mort, and their descendants, by
conquering in turn their brachykephalic conquerors.
And whereas for a great many centuries the descen-
dants of these brachykephali are known to have
been brown of hair and skin, and whereas the
Romans describe as blond the Gallic invaders of
Italy and even of Galatia; it is perhaps easiest to
suppose that they described the military aristocracy
or caste, and that these, in distant migrations at
least, did not encumber themselves largely with an
accompaniment of serfs. Anyhow, the skulls found
at the celebrated station of Hallstadt in Southern
Austria, the rich concomitants of which are gener-
ally believed to indicate a Keltic civilization, and
to date from many centuries before Christ — these
skulls are long and might be Galatic, Belgic,or even
-w Germanic, say some German authorities. Further

y^ down the Danube we find, in Alexander the Great's

time, for example, tribes said to be Gaulish and bear-
ing Keltic names, as the Skordiski and T auriski ;
and some other tall red-haired warriors further to
the north-east, such as the Bastarnae, though prob-
ably German, may have been Galatic. To use an
argument frequently employed about the Aryan
question, it seems much more easy to derive the

Primeval Man— Succession of Races. 53

Skordiski and their neighbours from Gaul than the
Gauls from them ; and then the universal consent
of the old historians went that way. It would seem,
however, that even before the Gauls occupied or
dominated Transalpine Gaul, they were seated in
parts of what we now call Germany, and closely in
the neighbourhood of some of the true Germans :
the reasons for believing this are derived partly
from resemblances of language and partly from the
minute topography of modern Germany; the ground
plan of the ancient Keltic and Germanic village
having been different, and this difference having
left its mark.

The next great power to rise on the ruins of the
Etruscan and Carthaginian, and Greek and Gallic,
was, of course, the Roman. I have only to do with
the results on physical anthropology, of its con-
quests and colonisations, but these were no doubt
great. The Roma»ns seem to have multiplied enor-
mously during the growth of their power, much as
the Greeks had done at the same stage ; moreover,
their veteran armies, which were employed for
colonisation, so far as they were not Roman were at
least Italian, until the culmination of their power.
The rule is that an anthropological type once in
possession of the ground is never wholly dispossessed
or extirpated. " They beheaded," said to me the
great Broca, "a score or two of the leading men, and
called it exterminating a tribe." Still, Caesar gives
us to understand (and he was a more humane con-
queror than some of them) that he did his worst
towards the destruction of some tribes. Thus, he

54 The Anthropological History of Europe.

says, he sold into slavery the whole survivors of the
Veneti; but probably many of these enslaved people
would be purchased and retained by the new pos-
sessors of the lands; besides, most countries have
about them a little of the quality of Lome, which
the Highland freebooter found was " as ill to harry
as it was to pike a sheep's neck;" and there is
reason to think there are still Veneti in Morbihan.^

The most important piece of evidence, where-
with I am acquainted, to the permanence of Latin
colonisation is the following. The Romans are said
by Livy to have transported 40,000 Ligurians, with
their families into the vacant tracts of Samnium,
and to have filled up their places with colonists.
Now, the Ligurians were believed, mainly on the
authority and evidence of Nicolucci, to have been
strongly brachykephalic, as the Piedmontese are to
this day ; whereas the Romans were mesokephalic
as a rule, with indices of breadth below 80, and the
modern Roman skulls are just what the old ones
were.

But the modern inhabitants of the Ligurian coast,
from Savona to Lucca, are mesokephalic, and have
narrower heads than any other people in Northern
Italy, as Ridolfo Livy has shewn. I can see two
other possible explanations of this fact, but the one
I have suggested (colonization from Southern or
Middle Italy) seems the easiest.

The frequently dark complexions of the inhabi-
tants of the old Roman cities on the Rhine may

^ Topinard's statistics of colour point that way.

Primeval Man — Succession of Races. 55

possibly be derived partly from old Italian colonisa-
tion. In the later ages of the Roman power, when
the soldiery were gathered from all the subject
nations fit for service, colonisation meant the mix-
ing of one nationality with another on a very small
scale. Minute enquiry might very probably, in
some instances, detect permanent results, but I am
not aware of any; and where the change was a
violent one in respect of climate, such as that from
Mauritania or Dalmatia to Britain, the descendants
of the colonists may have gradually dwindled away.
The next race to rise into importance was the
Teutonic ; and its migrations, when it had once
begun to overcome the resistance of the Roman
Empire, were on an enormous scale, well deserving
the name the Germans give to them — the Wander-
ing of the Peoples. Here, again, the pressure of an
increasing population had something to do with the
movement, yet not everything, for many of the
tribes appear to have abandoned their previous ter-
ritories en masse ; ^ but Germany was not at that
time able to support a very large population. The
net result of all the struggles of the fifth and sixth
century was greatly to abridge the area occupied
by the German language and, probably, the area in
which the German physical type, the Graverow
type, preponderated. More was abandoned on the
east than was gained in the west and south. The
Franks were comparatively few in number and

^ Thus the Angles, according to Bede, and the Saxons who accom-
panied the Lombards to Italy.

56 The Anthropological History of Europe.

spread over a large area peopled by subject aliens.
Nor was the case very much different with the
Visigoths and Longobards : the numbers of the
former were, I have no doubt, greatly exaggerated,
nor do I believe that Lombardy before its conquest
by Alboin was so thoroughly depopulated as Ridge-
way thinks. Otherwise the Longobards would have
retained their language, and a majority, instead of
a minority, would have enjoyed the privileges of
Longobardic law. The Burgundians may have been
a little more numerous in proportion to their sub-
jects ; but they were content with one-third of the
land, which may fairly be taken as proof that the
Gallorom-ans very largely outnumbered them. In
the result the Burgundians soon lost their language;
their well-defined form of head, which was long,
with a breadth index of about 74 or 75, and very
similar to that of the Anglo-Saxon, has apparently
disappeared, the heads in modern Burgundy and
Franche Comte being extremely broad; but their
fair complexion is still conspicuous; and whereas
Sidonius ApoUinaris talked of them as " greasy
sevenfoot giants," Franche Comte still supplies the
French army with its tallest grenadiers.

But the whole south-western frontier of the
German language seems to have been really ad-
vanced, the Saxons, Frisians, and Salian Franks
having occupied Flanders and Brabant, the Ripu-
arian Franks the right and left banks of the Middle
Rhine and the Moselle, the Alemanni Alsace,
Swabia, and after Swabia North-eastern and Cen-
tral Switzerland, and the Marcomanni (probably)

Primeval Man — Succession of Races. 57

Bavaria. In all these cases the new acquisitions
were conterminous with the old holdings; and in
some of them there is more or less reason to think
that the invaders re-occupied ground which had
been won by the Romans from their own kindred :
I have said more or less reason — I should myself say
less rather than more. The result is that Flanders
and most of Brabant are thoroughly Germanic — the
Electorates (Treves, Cologne, and Mayence) rather
less so, at least in their western parts; Alsace,
Swabia, Bavaria, and Central Switzerland more
German than otherwise in colour, but in headform
more Keltic or Rhoetian.

But the greatest of the German conquests, from
the racial point of view, was that of our own country
(or shall we say of Eastern Britain), which was
largely Saxonised in blood as well as in language
and social state ; while the western parts of the
British Isles, including Ireland, have been Saxonised,
if at all, more by infection and contact than by
change of blood.

As a second wave of Teutonic conquest, we may
reckon the Scandinavian, which, however, did not
begin until long after the Volkswanderung of the
Germans themselves had come to an end. Here,
again, the movement must have coincided with a
rapid increase of population; but it was too great
an effort to continue; and though it did not lead
to an actual curtailment of the area of the stock
and language as the Volkswanderung did, it ended
in such thorough exhaustion of the parent stock
that it continued to be of little importance for cen-
5

58 The Anthropological History of Europe.

turies. Iceland, Shetland, Orkney, Caithness, were
all that the movement added to the Scandinavian
language area, but in many other parts of these
islands it left its mark more or less plainly on
the physical type ; so it was in the Hebrides,
especially in the Lews, m Man, in Cumberland and
Westmoreland, and the West Border, very strongly ;
in Yorkshire, and along the east coast of Scotland,
in Lincolnshire, Nottinghamshire, East Norfolk and
adjoining districts, perhaps also in Pembrokeshire,
certainly about Wexford and Waterford. On the
Continent it affected the coast of Normandy, and
to a less degree the interior. Collignon even thinks
he sees its traces over a large tract of country on
and about the Middle Loire ; and finally, it is said
to be visible in the nobility of Sicily and Southern
Italy.

South of the Baltic, too, the Germanic wave of
conquest is remarkable in having been double;
several centuries after the Volkswanderung had
ceased, population growing dense, as it seems al-
ways to do in the early stages of the civilisation
of capable races, the Saxons, Frisians, and even the
Flemings, set themselves to reconquer those exten-
sive territories east of the Elbe, the Hartz, the
Thuringian mountains, and the Upper Main, which
they or their kindred had relinquished long ago to
the Wends; and gradually, by force, fraud, com-
merce, or peaceable colonisation of empty spaces,
they re-Germanised pretty thoroughly a large por-
tion of them. The physical type of the tribes they
submerged was apparently very like their own, but

Primeval Man — Succession of Races. 59

we must not forget the possibility that weak and
scattered remnants of the Germans had been left
behind in the great migration, and lost in the then
flowing tide of Slavonism. Buschan tells me he
thinks this a probable explanation of the fact that \
the Cassubians (still Slav in speech), and the other '
inhabitants of Koslin, the eastermost province of '
Pomerania, constitute one of the most blond areas
of Germany.

Next, after the great or earlier Germanic move-
ment, and previous to that last spoken of, was the
spread of Saracenic conquest. The extent of the
extreme wave of this is scarcely realised ; not only
did the Moorish armies penetrate almost to the
Loire, but they ascended the Rhone valley, occupied
for a long period some of the passes of the high
Alps, possessed Sicily, plundered the coasts of Italy,
and settled there in small communities. In France,
according to Lagneau, they are thought to have
settled at Aubusson after their great defeat by
Charles Martel, and perhaps made there the first
carpet in Europe.^

The change they wrought in the physique of the
Spanish population was probably not very great.
The Semitic element in them was not altogether
new to the coasts, at least, of Spain, and the Berber
element was identical, or nearly so, with the primi-
tive Iberian.

Perhaps the expansion of the Slavs should have
been mentioned before that of the Saracens; it

' For *' Africa begins at the Pyrenees," as Dumas said.

60 The Anthropological History of Europe.

began earlier, but continued longer and later, and,
like that of the Germans, after a considerable inter-
ruption, in this case owing to the intercalation of
the Tartar dominion, it recommenced, to continue
almost to our own day. Poland,^ and the country
between the Carpathians and the Dnieper, seem to
have been the original occupation of the Slavs;
thence, on the westward movement of the Germans,
they spread ocross the Oder and the Elbe and to
the mouths of the Vistula ; they occupied the vacant
Bohemia, and passed over Pannonia and lUyria to
the Adriatic, and either by themselves, or under
Bulgarian dominion, occupied also more or less
completely almost the whole of the Balkan penin-
sula. By about the ninth century, spreading over
or among the Finnish tribes, they had established
themselves at Novgorod, long the chief seat of
their power and commerce, and had apparently
penetrated also to the Oka and the Upper Volga.
They were not a military people, but a ruling
and fighting case was supplied to them by the
Varangans from Scandinavia. Thereafter their
northward expansion continued uninterruptedly ;
that to the south-east, however, was first checked
and then completely arrested by the advent and rise
to power of successive hordes of Turks, of which
the latest included the Mongols of Batu Khan.
Meanwhile the Germans re-occupied, as was just
now mentioned, most of the territory which had

' The Lygii, whom Tacitus describes as Germans, were pretty cer-
tainly the Lekhs (Poles). This was one of Latham's happy conjectures.

Primeval Man — Succession of Races. 61

once been their own ; the settlement of the Magyars,
and later the growth of the Roumans, cut off the
southern division of the Slavs from the northern,
and the former were somewhat circumscribed by
the arrival of the Ottomans, and by the revival of
the Greeks and Albanians.

The tide of conquest to which I come last, con-
sisted of many waves, one of which, indeed, was
coeval with the Volkwanderung ; nay, it may be
that the very first such wave was much earlier even
than that. It is very difficult to say when the first
tribe of Turkish race entered Europe. Who or what
were the Etruscans, the Agathyrsi, the Kimmerians,
the Scythians, the Sarmatians, the Alans .'' There
is not one of these nations but has been conjectured
to be Turkish by some one or other. Were the
manners and politics of the Scythians and Sarma-
tians, which have a very Central-Asian or Turanian
look, the product of their life on the grassy steppes
of Southern Russia? or had they brought them
ready-made from Turkestan? We do not know.
I will return to the Scythians in a future lecture.

In the latter part of the fourth century appeared
the Huns, Mongoloid in type and in mode of life,
whatever they were in tongue and in blood. That
they had much to do with the inception of the
Volkswanderung is clear; the terror of them drove
the Visigoths across the Danube, perhaps the Sueves
and Alans across the Rhine, nay, possibly, as the
Quaens fled before the alarm of the Tartars into
Norway, so may the Angles have fled before that of
Huns into England. When their power collapsed

62 The Anthropological History of Europe.

they were not extinguished : the next wave of
nomads, the Avars, incorporated most of them.
The Avars, if not entirely Turkish, were at least
Turanian. Then followed the Bulgarians, a Finnish
race from the Volga, and settled among and ruled
over the Southern Slavs; but some of them wan-
dered as far as South Italy. Next the Hungarians,
the Magyars, from the same neighbourhood, but
mixed somewhat with Turkish blood, who, settling
in Hungary, no doubt incorporated the relics of the
Avars. Then the Khazars, Turks of a high type,
that is, may be, with an Aryan admixture. Then
the Patsinaks, Petchenegs, or Besses, Turks of a
lower civilization, who by much etymological tor-
ture are found to have given name to Bessarabia.
Then the Polovtsi or Khomans, also undoubted
Turks, who settled on the Dnieper, so far as nomads
could settle; and after them the most terrible of all,
the so miscalled Tartars, a mass of broken Turkish
tribes with a nucleus of veritable Mongols, who
destroyed or incorporated all the earlier Turkish
colonists of southern Russia, and, if half that is told
of them is to be believed, went nigh to destroying
the Russians, Poles, and Hungarians.

With the exception of the Ottoman Turks, who
have been a great power in Europe, but scarcely
anywhere, except in Eastern Bulgaria, in Thessaly,
in some parts of Roumelia, and in a few large
towns, a considerable element in the population,
and the Gypsies, an Upper Indian tribe of totally
different type from the Turks or Finns, in fact
more Aryan than aught else, there have been no

Primeval Man — Succession of Races. 63

more invasions from Asia since that of Batu Khan ;
for Tamerlane's victorious campaigns against Tok-
tamish, Khan of the Golden Horde, and Lord of
Russia, were nothing but campaigns, and led to
no settlement. The tide has long been running
eastward : the Turanian flood has been ebbing ;
Aryan and Finnish islands have appeared among its
receding waves, and have gradually coalesced until
only a few pools are left here and there. The
Tartars of Kasan and of the Crimea, the few that
are left, are the most civilised peasantry in Russia ;
and the very fine type of the Roumelian Osmanli is
rapidly dwindling away. /

LECTURE III.

RUSSIA AND THE BALKAN PENINSULA.

Russia — The Scythians — Spread of the Slavs — Physical characters
of the Finns — The Marians — The Mongol invasion — Compo-
sition of the modern Russian people — The Lithuanians — Ugrian
and Tartar tribes — The ancient occupants of the Balkan pen-
insula — The Hellenes — Modern descendants of the Thraciana
and Illyrians. ,

WE have not much material of very early dates
from Russia ; the earliest probably comes
from the kitchen-middens on the Baltic, whence
some every short and broad skulls are reported to
have been gotten.

Thus we have in Russia something like the same
difficulty that we have in the west. Long-heads —
long and very narrow — may have prevailed ; but
short ones did occur, and were not merely the pro-
duct of rickets or hydrocephalus, but indicate the
existence of a brachykephalic race or race element.
Almost all parts of Russia abound with kurgans or
tumuli of different kinds, mostly sepulchral. Of
these probably the oldest are in the south, and are
supposed to belong to the Scythian period. The
few skulls got from them are mostly long, but in
the rich barrow-tomb of a Scythian king, described
by Von Baer, the heads which he took to belong
to the ruling race yielded an average index of 81.

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 65

The philological evidence is thought to point
rather to the Iranian affinity of the Scythians; but
the evidence of these skulls, and that given by Hip-
pocrates as to their physique, in conjunction with
their character and history, make me think that
they were Turanian. And I must plead guilty to
the heresy, in spite of Professor Rhys, of believing
the Kimmerians, the sons of Gomer, to have been
either Kelts or Gauls, not unrelated to the Kymri
of Wales and to our own Strath-clyde Welshmen.

The growth of the broad-headed element is shown
in the following table by Bogdanof ; it relates to the
Government of Kiev : —

D'lliclio. Mesc. Bnichj'.

Scytho-Sarmatian Period, 6 11

Early Slavish Period, - - 9 2 7

9th to 18th Century, - - 10 6 6

Here the early population, which may have been
Finnish, Germanic, Lithuanian, Sarmatic— -who can
tell .'* — is replaced by the Slavs with their moderately
broad heads ; but once established, the Slavish type
does not seem to have varied much. The anthro-
pological history of Russia, from, say A.D. 4 or 5G0
up to 1200, may be summed up thus : 1, Emigration or
vanishing of Germanic and Sarmatic tribes, Goths,
Alans, perhaps Rhoxalani ; 2, Spread of the Slavs
from their old centre, supposed to have been Poland,
Galicia, Volhynia, over all Western, Central, and
North-western Russia, destroying or rather incor-
porating the numerous Finnish tribes who were
their predecessors, or in some instances pushing
them out of their old seats ; whence, 3rd, Migration

66 The Anthropological History of Europe.

of some of the Finns towards the west, those of the
Tavistian section, whose modern descendants are
mostly fair and with moderate breadth -indices,
moving into Finland to mix with the Swedes, or
into Esthonia, whence they expelled the Letts, a
Lithuanic, Aryan people — those of the Karelian
division, generally darker in hair, and broader in
head, also moving westwards, but in the rear of
their brethren.

Nothing is more calculated to throw doubt on
the extremely high valuation of skull-breadth as an
indication of race, than the phenomena of that kind
in the Finnish tribes. For there is a certain amount
of general physical resemblance among them all:
it is not merely that their languages are related;
yet nevertheless they vary extremely in index of
breadth ; thus the Lapps stand at about 84*7 (Hallsten
says 86'5, Von der Horck, 86'5), the Chuds at 833,
the Finns of Karelia about 82, of Tavastland, 80,^
which is also that of some skulls from ancient
Kurgans at Saivatapala; the Esths stand about 78;
the Liefs, their nearest kindred, the same ; the Vesses,
and Vots, 80, according to Mainow, but Iwanowski
makes the heads of the latter rather longer. The
same kind of facts are encountered among the
Oriental Finns, but the details of these may as
well be deferred until after the consideration of
the great Tartar invasion, which complicated the
anthropology of eastern Russia considerably. The
facial physiognomy seems to be more characteristic

'See Gustav Retzius as to the Finlanders.

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 67

than the cranial. The skull usually gives the im-
pression of squareness, whether viewed from above
or from behind, but in some tribes, and particularly
in the Bulgarians, it may be styled cylindrical. The
face is broad in proportion to its length, from the
development of the cheekbones; the brows level
and but little prominent, the orbital openings wide
and low, the eyes narrow and often a little obliquely
set, the nose straight or hollow and prominent at
the tip if anywhere. These points seem to be com-
mon to most if not all of the Finnish or Ugrian
tribes ; they appear, for example, in the Mordwins,
and not unfrequently in the Bulgarians, though
these last are much mixed with Turkish as well as
still more largely with Slavic blood.

Coloration varies in all these tribes. In the
Esthonians proper the hair is said to be generally
yellow, or yellowish brown, and straight ; this is a
race-character. The temperament seems to be a
mixture of the lymphatic and melancholic; Von
Baer remarks that some are truly melancholic, and
that these are apt to have black hair ; they are said,
accordingly, to be patient, slow to anger, self-
restrained, but persevering, and formidable when
once roused. All this again seems to be common to
almost all the Ugrian race.

The Merians, who of all the greater Ugrian
tribes we know, were earliest and most completely
Russianized, though I have little doubt that others
had disappeared so early that their very names had
been lost — the Merians who inhabited the central
provinces around Moscow have been minutely

68 The Anthropological History of Europe.

studied as to their ethnology, their arts and modes
of life, by Count Uvarof, who opened an immense
number of their sepulchral barrows or kurgans.
Their name is not mentioned in history later than
A.D. 907, and doubtless they were already by that
time much mixed with Russians. Many localities
retain the names they gave, much, let us say, as
localities in Aberdeenshire or Fife retain their old
Keltic names; this permanence of names is more
likely to occur where the relations between the
waxing and the waning race have been friendly on
the whole, as was probably the case between the
Merians and the Russians. For though the Merians
were tall and strong (their stature was from 5ft. 6in.
to 5ft. lOin.), they were a pacific people, and though
their civilization was by no means of low type,
they were poor. They had ornaments of bronze
and silver, however, and seem to have acquired
pearl, silk, and fine cloth, by trade with the Arabs
and Bulgarians. The rite of Sutti, which Ibn
Foslan, who travelled among them in 921, and saw
the obsequies of a prince, has described, may have
belonged to them as well as to the Slavs.

As they were taller than the modern population,
so were they longer-headed, with an index of
breadth varying a good deal, from 65 upwards, but
averaging perhaps 73 or 74, which is less than that
of any existing Finnish tribe. Their hair was rather
dark than light brown, if we may trust to the colour
of such as is found in the graves.

Further north also the process of Russification
was always going on. The populations of Novgorod

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 69

and Pskov, energized by a cross of Swedish blood
through the Varangians, spread their colonies
among the Finns of the north as far as Archangel
and the Petchora. Howorth thinks the Votiaks or
Vod were pushed by them eastwards to their
present seats in Viatka, much as the Esths were
driven westward (the Letts to this day call the
Esths "Iggauns," "the expelled ones").^ The sug-
gestion that the Vods were the Budini (Vodini), of
the Greeks seems inevitable. For the Budini were
noted for their red hair, and the modern Votiaks
are among the reddest or most rufous of men ; they
are commonly said to be all redhaired, but Malijew's
figures do not bear out this extreme statement. He
gives the following percentages — red hair, 11;
flaxen, 7; light brown, 15; brown, 29; dark brown,
32; black, 2; grey, 4. But no less than 47 had red
beards. They have rather broad heads (79'8), are
rather short and thick set (5ft. 4iin.), their eyes are
oftener blue or grey than brown. On the whole,
except for the comparative deficiency of black hair
among them, their colours are not very unlike
those of the people of Athol and Mar, where red
hair is more abundant than in any other part of
Britain.

The Votiaks are not far behind in civilization.
They are said to have learned much from the
Tartars, but not to have mixed blood with them,
though these same irrepressible invaders penetrated

' It is said, however, that the Novgorodians found the Votiaks in
Viatka in the twelfth century.

70 The Anthropological History of Europe.

even beyond them, to their kindred tribe, the
Voguls in the Ural mountains.

The dreadful energy and persistence of these
Mongols in their two great invasions of Russia in
1237 and 1239, is as impressive as their atrocious
cruelty and destructiveness. Of all the settled
portions of the country, only Novgorod and the
north-west escaped, owing to a sudden thaw ren-
dering the previously frozen ground absolutely
impracticable. City after city was taken, sacked,
burned, and its inhabitants massacred; to submit
was usually death, to attempt resistance was worse.
Reading the story in the pages of Howorth or
Karamsin, one compares it with that of Khorassan,
which was the richest and most civilized province
of Western Asia before the Mongols entered it, but
which they left a desolate wilderness, a condition
from which it has never fully recovered. But one
may better compare the ravages of the Mongols in
Russia to those of the Danes in Britain. Though
the latter were less destructive, they achieved their
success owing very much to the same causes, the
greater hardihood of their men, their superiority
in weapons and generalship, the subjection of the
victims to an emasculating form of religion, and
(this was more marked in Russia) the disuse of arms
by the inferior classes. If the Scotch had lagged
behind in civilization, such as civilization was at
the period of our Danish invasions, they were
perhaps on that very account better able to resist
a barbarian invader than were the Saxon English.
To show how great was the fear of the Tartars

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 71

even in remote countries, we may quote Gibbon,
cited by Howorth, who says tliat through fear of
them the fishermen of Sweden and Frisia failed,
in 1238, to attend the herring fishery on the British
coast ; and that from this cause herrings were dear.

It was not only the Slavic inhabitants of Russia
that were swept with the besom of destruction.
Bolgari, the old commercial mart of Eastern Russia,
the metropolis of Old Bulgaria, the region whence
had issued both the Magyars and the Bulgars of the
Danube, was utterly destroyed. The people there-
about had probably been a mixture of the two
Finnish types already spoken of, of which the one
is represented by the Esthonians, the other, darker
and with broader head, by the Tchuds ; but ancient
skulls have been little sought for there. The rem-
nants of the earlier Turkish races in the south were
partly incorporated : others, as the Khomans, fled
westwards, and were received in Hungary, where
their descendants still remain, but do not exhibit
their ancient Turkish breadth of head: the cause
of the change was probably their long sojourn in
Little Russia, where the prehistoric population,
from the time of the Scythians, had been mainly
long-headed, and may have been incorporated.

The Mongols were of course but a minority, and
a rather small minority, in the great Golden Horde,
the majority of which was composed of the debris
of various Turkish tribes, more or less mixed with
those of conquered nations, Persians, Circassians,
Alans, and so forth. There was at least one
Englishman in Batu Khan's army. The Mongol

72 The Anthropological History of Europe.

and Turkish types are well known, and were
probably originally identical or nearly so; but the
Turks, lying to the west of the Mongols, came
earlier into contact with the Iranian nations, and
by mixture with them beautified their own type.
The original one, which may be called Turanian,
though some anthropologists look on it as an
infantine form arrested, is free from most of the
points to which Schaaffhausen objects as primitive
or savage; it is large and capacious, without large
frontal sinuses or protuberant occiput or projecting
jaws. As a rule, no doubt these people are of low
intellectual power; but some of their early monarchs
were able men. There are curious legends about
the origin of Jinghiz Khan's family from a super-
natural ancestor, who is represented as fair and
blue-eyed; but whether this is an astronomical
myth, or whether it points to early admixture of
the ruling stock with a higher race, I will not
hazard an opinion.

The moral qualities of the Mongols are thus
summed up by a Persian writer, and could not be
better adapted for savage and irregular warfare.
"They have," says Vassaf, "the courage of lions,
the endurance of dogs, the prudence of cranes, the
cunning of foxes, the farsightedness of ravens, the
rapacity of wolves, the keenness for fighting of
cocks, the tenderness for their offspring of hens
(here is one redeeming feature), the wiliness of cats
in approaching, and the impetuosity of boars in
overthrowing their prey." \

During the decline of the power of the Golden \

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 73

Horde, and after its adherents had been broken up
into the three Khanates of the Crimea, of the
Nogays and of Kasan, their incursions continued
exceedingly destructive. They are even said to
have carried off, when they sacked Moscow in 1571,
no less than 800,000 captives — a great exaggeration
doubtless, but not without some foundation. Great
numbers of these must have perished on the journey,
but on the whole the Slav element in the south and
on the Volga must have been increased in this way ;
but it is not so clear how it came to pass that the
Tartar element was largely imported into Great
Russia or Muscovy, which, however, we shall see,
was certainly the case.

Since the capture of Kazan and the reduction of
the Crimea to a Russian province, only one striking
anthropographical change has occurred, viz., the
emigration en masse of the Kalmuks from the
steppes of the Lower Volga into the Chinese
empire. By this event, the pure Mongol element
in Europe was reduced to small dimensions, and
it is said that those who remain have no tendency
to increase in numbers.

The modern population of Russia proper is in
overwhelming majority Slav, and mostly falls under
the great divisions of Great, Little, and White
Russians — the Little Russians occupying the regions
east and west of the Lower Dnieper, the White
Russians the Middle Dnieper and Upper Dwina,
the Great Russians the whole north and east; but
while the area of the two smaller divisions is
uninterrupted, that of the larger is broken, especially

74 The Anthropological History of Europe.

in the east, by the territories of a number of Finnish
and Turkish tribes. And the Muscovites them-
selves must be looked upon as a people who, how-
ever pure Slavs they may have been at their starting
points, have in the course of their rapid expansion
included and assimilated large alien populations
similar or identical with those which still remain
recognizable, a people, too, whose purity of type
must have diminished pari passu with their
advance, just as the purity of the Saxo-Frisic type
in Wessex gradually and visibly lessens as one
travels westward from Hampshire or Berkshire, or
that of the Anglian type from Berwickshire
towards Linlithgow.

The Tartar element in the very purest Great
Russians is not a negligible quantity. Several of
the names for money, as altun, kopek, several of
those for measures of capacity or weight, as arshin,
kile, aghash, the name of their national drink, kwas,
the names of some court officials, the use of the
word " Christian " as a somewhat contemptuous
term for the lower classes, and many characteristics
in their habits and manners, are Tartar. All these
points, it is true, do not prove anything beyond
intercourse; but Von Hammer gives a list of
122 Russian families of known Tartar origin.
"Among these," says Howorth, "are some of the
best known in Russian history." I may quote
Glinski, Godunof, Golovin, Dashkof, Narishkin,
Opraxin, Rostopchin, Turgenef, Uvarof, the last
the name of the nobleman to whom we owe so
much in Merian archaeology. To the Merians, by

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 75

the way, the Russians are thought to owe the so-
called Russian bath. Bogdanof thinks that the
Mordwins, one of the brachykephalic Finnish
tribes, whose remains seem to occur in ancient
kurgans, may also have contributed to the forma-
tion of the Muscovite type. The portraits of
modern Mordwins which he publishes might easily
be paralleled in this country, and confirm my belief
in the presence in these islands, and particularly
in Scotland, of an ancient Finnish element of
population.

Be these things as they may, there is sufficient
evidence to the existence of a fairly well-defined
and permanent Great-Russian type of man. As to
its stability, Taranetzky says that, having carefully
examined the ancient Slavish skulls disinterred in
Novgorod by Von Wolkenstein (which date from
the tenth or eleventh century), he is unable to find
the least difference between them and those of the
present generation, whether in the measurements
or the general contour and aspect. The hair, too,
seems to have been of the prevalent modern colour,
a rather darkish brown.

Taking as a basis the very careful and laborious
memoir of Taranetzky, one might say that, in the
portion of the country which he deals with, the
Great-Russian type was perhaps purest in the
governments of Twer, Pskov, and Novgorod, rather
less so in those of Kostroma and Yaroslav, of
Olonetz and Vologda and St. Petersburg, and least
of all in the most remote. Archangel. The stature
is rather short: calculating from Anuchin's statistics,

76 The Anthropological History of Europe.

I should say 1,650 millimeters, or 5 feet 5 inches in
the adult man. The eyes are small and grey, or
sometimes dark; the hair varies through different
shades of brown. The skull is fairly capacious,
broad (about 81), of good height (about 76), flattened
at back and often at the top, and on the whole of
form between an ellipse and an oblong (which I
take to be what Taranetzky and Bogdanof mean by
"biscuit-formed"). This is the Sarmatic form of
Von Holder, and most of the Russians I have seen
have exhibited it. It accords well with the some-
what square and massive frame. The frontal
sinuses are little developed ; the nose is broad and
often rather flat; the face not so broad in the pure
type as where the Finnish element is strong, but
with the same oblong compactness as the skull.

The Little -Russians (Malorussians), every one
agrees, are different from the Muscovites in physi-
cal and moral characteristics. Inhabiting a much
richer soil, they are conspicuously taller than their
northern kindred, whose struggle for life is often
very hard. " Brunette with black eyes and an oily
skin," says Barchewitz, " fond of greasy feeding and
of music." Their country has been the camping-
ground of so many and so diverse nations and races,
that it would be useless to discuss the derivation of
their types, which are probably numerous. The
White Russians border on the Lithuanians and
Poles, and have probably mixed with both, and
perhaps the blond element in them has thus been
strengthened; but they inhabit the very swampy
country about the Dnieper, the Prypek, and the

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 11

Beresina, a country where it is said that everything
— the vegetation, the cattle, the birds — take on a
colourless or pale hue, and where, accordingly,
Poesche and his followers conceive that the blond
type must have originated.

This speculation, and the closer relation of the
Lithuanic language to the Sanskrit than that of
any other European tongue, which seems pretty
well established, make it extremely desirable, on
scientific grounds, that both the Lithuanians and
the White Russians should be visited in their own
country, and their physical type and archaeology
investigated by some competent authority. One
of the most competent men in Europe, Professor
Virchow, once undertook the task, but unfortun-
ately he had to stop at the Prussian frontier, and
his results were not conclusive. Other observers
have been there, but at present we really know less
of the Lithuanians, so far as these matters are
concerned, than of many a small tribe ten thousand
miles away.

The Letts, it is true, who are the nearest kindred
of the Lithuanians, are not quite so unknown.
They are a mesokephalic people, that is, their
skulls yield a breadth-index of 78. They are of
good stature, and of fair complexion, with blue or
blue-gray eyes, and flaxen or brown hair, soft and
wavy. The old Prussians, of whom a few skulls,
belonging, it would seem, to the long Germanic or
graverow form, have been measured, were another
branch of this stock; their descendants are still
long-headed, but apparently less so than the

78 The Anthropological History of Europe.

ancients. These people have undoubtedly been
long in contact with the Finns on the north-east,
as well as with the Scandio-Germanic people who
dwelt in Livonia, Esthonia, and Finnland, before
the westward movement of the Finns.

I have yet to speak briefly of most of the non-
Aryan tribes of eastern and south-eastern Russia.
The Votiaks and Voguls have already been men-
tioned. Excluding, then, the Russians, the race
elements are, first, the Ugrians or Finns, who,
notwithstanding the general resemblance already
spoken of, vary considerably both as between tribe
and tribe, and within the limits of the tribe, in
form of head, and still more in colour of the hair
and eyes, probably by reason of ancient and partial
crossing of blood with Asiatics; and second, the
Turks, in some cases crossed with Mongolic blood.
The invaders are probably more mixed, on the
whole, than the invaded, to judge from the cephalic
index.

Thus the Cheremisses have a stature of 5 feet
37 inches, and a breadth-index of 76"8, and are, in
great proportion, blond ; they are the remains of a
spirited and once formidable people, who still sacri-
fice in secret in consecrated woods. The Chuvashes,
more Tartarized in blood and language, are a little
broader in head ; some think them to be Turks
Finnized rather than the reverse, but it is more
probable that they are the remains of the old
Bulgarians.

The Mordwins in two divisions, the Mokshas^
and the Ertsas, belong to the broad-headed division \

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 79

of the Finns, and, on the whole, incline to be dark.
Their index is variously reckoned, but is well
beyond 80.

The Tartars of Kassimov, in Riazan, who are
Moslems, do not now mix with their neighbours,
but we may conclude that they once did so, for
their index of breadth is but 81, and but 15 of 30
had black hair. The Tartars of Kasan, who dwell
where once the Bulgarians may have dwelt, and
who must have mixed largely with captives from
the surrounding tribes, have an index of only 79'2,
less than that of the Russians.

We come now to the Bashkirs, the Metcheriaks,
and the Teptiars, all undeniable mongrels; they
are Finnish tribes which have been so infiltrated
with Turk blood that they are now more Turk
than Finn, and more Tartar than the Tartars them-
selves. The Bashkirs are tall, strong, and dark-
haired, with but few exceptions; they seem to
exhibit a variety of types, the result probably of
comparatively recent crossings. Some have the
round, large, low heads of the Mongols, others the
round, high head, and large, coarse aquiline nose of
the high Turkish or Turcoman type ; others, again,
according to photographs I have seen, exhibit the
comparatively prominent occiput, cylindrical head,
and retrousse nose of the Bulgarians. Accordingly,
some report their breadth-index at 79, more at 81
or 82, Ujfalvy as high as 84.

The Metcheriaks were undoubted Finns from
the Metchera, west of the Volga ; the Turkish cross

80 The Anthropological History of Europe.

has improved their physique, and they are very fine
large men, with the dark complexion and round
heads of the Turks.

Further south the Nogays and the remainder of
the Kalmuks retain their original Central Asiatic
types ; the latter, as Metchnikof points out, exhibit-
ing, in their large round heads, short, thick noses,
large outstanding ears, short chins, and legs short
in comparison to the trunk, the proportions which
Ouetelet assigns to the children of the highest or
so-called Caucasian type of men. To these points
he adds the peculiarity of the Mongolian eye (which
frequently occurs as a juvenile condition in Western
Europe), and the late appearance of the beard.

But the Tartars of the Southern Crimea are a
different people. They are settled agricultural folk,
but there is no good reason for ascribing any change
in their features to that fact.^ They appear to have
absorbed the remains of the Greeks of the Cim-
merian Bosphorus, and, what is to us still more
interesting, those of the Tetraxite Goths, who are
known to have existed hereabout as a distinct tribe
as late as the sixteenth century. Busbequius saw
one of these people then, who, he says, had the
appearance of a Fleming. And I have myself seen,
mixing with men whose eyes and complexion
betrayed the Mongoloid strain, Tartars whose eyes,
hair, complexion, and features would have passed
muster among ourselves. It had for me a kind of

' The sedentary Bashkirs are said to be more Mongoloid in physique
than their nomad kindred.

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 81

pathetic interest to look at these men, to recognise
their kindly blood, to see in them the descendants
of the companions of Kniva and of Hermanric, to
know that the nationality they once belonged to
had passed away and been forgotten, and that to
which they now adhered was in progress to the
like extinction.

Of the quarternary and even of the neolithic
populations of the Balkan peninsula, so far as 1 am
aware, nothing whatever is known. The earliest
period of which we really seem to know anything
is that of the Mycenaean civilization, the era of
bronze and gold and of Cyclopean constructions,
though in Crete the last two decades have enabled
us to see farther back into the neolithic age. Evi-
dently Greece was a meeting-ground of several
races. The northern portions of the peninsula
were in the possession of two of these, the Illyrian
and the Thracian, both reputed Arian, though in
the case of the former the claim is doubtful: it is
not so long since the philologists admitted it: and
I do not think the Albanian language, the modern
representative of the Illyrian, has even yet been
thoroughly analysed. Galen speaks of the Thracians
as a fair race: I do not think much, however, of
such statements, when used, as he used them, to
support a theory. It would be convenient to
believe that the Illyrians were short-headed and
swarthy, but I know of no evidence from ancient
sources on these points. Fligier would deduce most
of the old Greek nomenclature from either Myrian
or Thracian etymologies, but that there was an

82 The Anthropological History of Europe.

early stratum in the country of people who spoke
a Turanian tongue, as argued for by Hyde Clark,
I entertain little doubt, and all the less since the
identification of the Hittite physiognomy has,
coupled with other lines of argument, proved the
early presence of Turanians in Asia Minor.

That the Hellenes proper were a race of the
type we most of us call the long-headed Aryan,
there seems no doubt. Nicollucci found an index
of 75'8 in 26 ancient Greeks. The skulls that have
come down to us from the classical period are
generally long, rather narrow and high ; and blond
coloration was common and admired among the
Greeks, at all events in the early historical period.
Both the Achaens and the Dorians were apparently
waves of migration from some more northern
region. You will remember that almost all of
Homer's heroes were xanthous — blond or chestnut
haired — Minerva was grey-eyed, but Juno " (Sowing "
ox-eyed — probably with dark as well as large eyes.
The earlier subject races, Pelasgic or what not, may
have been dark — Hector was dark-haired. The
doctrine of the temperaments, taken with the
physical traits attributed to each of them, indicates
that there was much variety of colours among the
Greeks of the classic period. Even the Macedonians
of Alexander's time, according to Ujfalvy, are por-
trayed as blond, with long rather low heads — quite
a northern type. ,3u t later on, in ^he Romao-period.-
„..tbe-Greeksjn ^gypt are all represented with^ark
eyes and hair.

The Hellenic race was very prolific in its palmy

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 83

days, but like all military and exclusive castes it
dwindled after a time : the true Spartans, for ex-
ample, seem to have become almost extinct. Two
natives of Sparta, whom I once had an opportunity
of examining, might have belonged to some primi-
tive Turanian race. They were tall, strongly built,
swarthy and brachykephalic. It must be remem-
bered that there are two distinct tribes in the two
mountain ranges of Laconia, the Tzakpns in the
eastern one, the Mainotes in the prolongation of
Taygetus towards Cape Matapan, neither of whom,
so far as I am aware, have really been studied. The
Tzakons' dialect is said to have Dorian affinities.^
The history of the Peninsula, in relation to
ethnology, is not very complicated. The Kelts in
the north disappeared early : some think the nor-
thern Croats, who are not so tall or so dark as the
southern Croats, are merely Kelts Slavonized, while
the southerners are Illyrians. The Thracians lost
their nationality and language, and accepted the
Latin; the Illyrians, at least the southern portion
of them, holding a poorer, more mountainous and
difficult country, succeeded in retaining their
tongue, of which the Shkipetar (Albanian), is the
modern representative. The Latin occupancy pro-
bably scarcely affected the blood : the Gothic was
transient; but the Slavonic was extensive and
permanent, influencing more or less the whole
country down to Cape Matapan, and changing the

^ I once caught and measured a Tzakon. His kephalic index was
82-4, or 80-4, if corrected, for the skull.

84 The Anthropological History of Europe.

language of more than half of it. In the people of
Servia and Bosnia, I think the Slav element really
preponderates; they are taller and finer men than
the Russians, but have the same make of body and
often of countenance ; and a great many of them
have light brown hair and answer to Procopius's
often-quoted description of their forefathers. In
the Bulgarians, the Finnish or Ugrian element is
strong, and there is much Turkish blood, some
perhaps brought in with the Ugrian, some, especi-
ally in Eastern Bulgaria, by the Ottomans: the
Slavs succeeded in giving the language, perhaps
more owing to the prestige of religion therewith
connected, than to their actual superiority in
number; but the "dour," sturdy national character
is rather Finn than Slav. As to the skull-form,
Kopernitsky says it is neither one nor other; but
he had probably in his mind the Finns of Tavastian
Finnland. The form is long, rather narrow, cylin-
drical, with very regular curves and absence of
frontal or parietal bosses. The forehead is remark-
ably recedent, and the face prognathous, the cheek-
bones not particularly wide. This must surely be
the true Bulgar type, for it is neither Slavish nor
Turkish, nor have we any reason to think it old
Thracian. To my eye it resembles that of the
Cheremisses. Both Slavish and Turkish types do,
however, occur, mixed with the one described ; in
what proportions we do not yet know, but Pittard
has proved their importance. The kephalic index
seems to increase as one proceeds westward to
Widdin and the Servian frontier.

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 85

The Thracians, once thought most populous of
nations, cannot of course be extinct. Their debris
are to be found among the Roumans or Vlachs.
Whether the Transdanubian Roumans, who appear
to be on the way to become a considerable nation,
have a Thracian nucleus or substratum, or a Dacian
one; whether, that is, they are descendants of
Trajan's colonists and Romanized Dacians, who
remained in the Transsylvanian mountains when
Aurelian recalled their fellows across the Danube,
or whether, as Fligier and others think, they were
Romanized Thracians, who in some time of dis-
turbance, long after Aurelian's day, migrated north-
wards across the Danube into some vacant tract in
Transsylvania, or perhaps were transported thither
by the Avars — matters little ethnologically ; the
Dacians and the Thracians were near kindred.
They are probably a good deal mixed in blood,
especially with their Slavonic neighbours; their
complexion is usually dark, though there are a
good many blond Roumans in the Bukowina ;
their heads are broad (828, Weisbach) and of good
height, and rounded ; their faces broad, but well
featured, with nothing of the prognathism of the
Bulgarians.

But there are other Roumans in the far south,
perhaps of greater interest, though comparatively
few in number. They are called Roumans, Vlachs,
Zinzars; they are mostly shepherds and herdsmen,
who wander along and across the ridges and
elevated mountain valleys of Pindus, and towards
Parnassus and CEta. Remote and secluded, they

86 The Anthropological History of Europe.

have been little studied ; but they must be the
descendants of the old Roman provincials, perhaps
of Macedonian or Thracian blood. They are des-
cribed as having sharply-drawn features and long,
shaggy fair hair, but that may be true of but one
particular tribe. Their names crop up nowadays
in the troubled politics of Macedonia.

And in the recesses of Mount Rhodope, between
the Hebrus, the Strymon and the sea, among the
Pomaks or nominally Moslem Bulgarians, has been
preserved an oral literature of great interest, in the
ballad form, and containing sundry words which
appear to be Aryan but not Slavonic, and may very
well be Thracian. These ballads have for subjects,
Alexander the Great, and Philip, and contain allu-
sions to Orpheus, and to other personages who may
be referred to Greek mythology. A controversy
like that about Ossian arose about these poems;
but I believe their genuineness is now allowed.
We must suppose therefore that we have in the
Rhodope the remains of Thracians who were still
un-Romanized in speech when the Slavs and
Bulgarians overran the land. It may be noted
that the heroes in these poems are always de-
scribed as fair-haired, but Fligier says this epithet
could not be applied to the present generation in
Rhodope.

Here are fine opportunities for any enterprizing
Englishman with money and a taste for travel and
adventure, and with sufficient brains to be able to
pick up a language. But alas! such men usually
seem to care for nothing but " killing something."

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 87

Men of the type of Campbell of Islay are wanted ;
but alas! men so gifted and so disposed are few.

The Albanians, the modern representatives of
the Illyrians, are men of good stature, with long
faces and prominent, often pointed noses; their
heads are remarkably short and broad, with the
greatest breadth placed far back. The first skull
ever obtained for measurement yielded to Virchow
an index of 91'5, and a small series of three from
Scutari gave to Zampa one of 89*5 — extraordinary
figures. Their colour varies in tribes and in indivi-
duals, but I think the most characteristic specimens
have mostly lank black hair, lighter colours being
due to Slavic or Greek admixture.^ The people to
the north of them, the Morlachs, or Black Wallachs,
in Dalmatia and Montenegro, and the Herzegovina,
are of an Illyro-Slavic cross; they are a tall, dark
race. " The wife of Hasan Aga " must have been a
brunette, when —

" Wide through Bosnia and the Herzegovina
Spread the tidings of her matchless beauty."

These people have been examined by the indefatig-
able Weisbach. They have an average stature of
about 1,690 millimeters, and in a mountainous dis-
trict 1,720, or nearly 5 ft. 8 in., the highest average

^This was my impression, and I am inclined to adhere to it; but
Miss Durham, who has dwelt among the northern tribes, says that she
found there tall, fair, and small, dark ugly men, that the former were
said to have immigrated from the north and east, but claimed to be the
true Albanians or Shkipetar. I suspect they were really more or less
Slavonic, and adopted the Shkipetar language from the lUyrian
aborigines.

88 The Anthropological History of Europe.

ascertained in Southern Europe; and the highest
stature is found in the south, i.e., the most Illyrian
and least Croat region, and goes with the blackest
hair. The index of breadth is 84, which is extremely
high. On the whole, lUyria seems to have been a
focus for broad heads and dark colours. Deniker
makes of these people a distinct race.

Among modern Greeks there are considerable
physical differences no doubt. Some portions of
their country have been colonised en masse by
Slavonians; others, as Attica, by Albanians. Even
the so-called national dress of the Greeks is the
Albanian kilt or fustanella. Still the old type is far
from being extinct, either in Europe or in Asia;
the ideal of the sculptors was perhaps always rare,
but I have seen it, living and breathing, and kissing
my hands, in Asia Minor.

Nicolucci found modern Greek skulls smaller in
capacity than the ancient, and decidedly shorter;
still, the index was under 80 (79'2), the height was
good (75).^ Weisbach found a breadth -index of
77'4 in Greeks of Constantinople; 78'3 for the
Peloponnese ; 807 in a large series from Bithynia ;
and 83'8 in another from Selymbria in Roumelia.
The last result is curious ; one must remember that
Greek means Greek by religion and language, or
not always even that. The divisions of peoples in
the Levant are very sharply accentuated ; inter-
marriage, for example, between Turk and Greek,
or Armenian and Greek, hardly ever occurs, but

^ I found an index of 80 in ten iEgean islanders.

Russia and the Balkan Peninsula. 89

one must not treat these divisions as necessarily
ethnological. These so-called Greeks of Selymbria
belong to the Greek community ; that is all that
can be positively asserted. As to their race, all that
one can be pretty sure of is that there is very little
Greek blood in them.

LECTURE IV.

SCANDINAVIA, CENTRAL EUROPE,
FRANCE.

Oldest Scandinavian Skull-forms — The Borreby and Svelrik skulls
— The Rhoxalani — Modern Norwegians and Danes — The Ice-
landers — Ancient German Graverow type — The four Swiss
types of His and Rutimeyer — Von Holder's discoveries at
Ratisbon — Ranke on the Bavarians^— Bohemia — Hallstadt —
Hungary, Poland, Holland — Colour and stature in Central
Europe — France, constitution of the Keltic nation there —
Results of the Volkswanderung — Clear demarcation of types in
Belgium, less clear in France — Investigations of Topinard and
Collignon.

THE three Scandinavian countries may be taken
together as constituting a single province with
respect to race as well as to language. Denmark
probably became peopled a little earlier than
Sweden, and perhaps Southern Sweden earlier than
Norway ; but we have remains of the men of the
stone period from all of them, though very few
from Norway. Those who think, as most do, that
the Lapps, or a people akin to them, were the
earliest inhabitants of Norway and Sweden, point
to the fact that the modern Lapps exercise great
secretiveness with regard to the burial of their dead,
as a reason why the resting-places of their supposed
ancestors are very rarely discovered.

Scandittavia, Central Europe, France. 91

The Swedish skulls of the stone age are elon-
gated, and resemble the Graverow type of Germany,
but among them are said to be about 10 per cent, of
short round skulls, generally thought to resemble
those of Lapps, and to indicate admixture of races.
In Denmark I am not aware that the kitchen-
middens have ever yielded a perfect skull; but
there are many in the Museum at Copenhagen
from cists and stone-galleries. They vary in
length ; some of them attain to brachykephaly, but
they are mostly characterised by ruggedness of
form, and particularly by the great development
of the superciliary or brow-ridges. In this and in
outline as viewed sidewise they much resemble
those of the bronze race in Britain, but are not
generally so wide : they also resemble the Sion type
of Switzerland, which seems to have been that of
the Gallic Helvetii. Some fine examples came from
Borreby, and the type is usually known by that
name.

Unfortunately, the Danish archaeologists seem to
have been singularly unsuccessful in finding or
procuring skulls of the bronze or early iron periods.
Those they have are extraordinarily long and
narrow, but they are too few to generalize upon.
Virchow has remarked that the old stone-type
seems to have continued to exist in Denmark, and
is pretty common nowadays : this is pretty much
what one finds in most countries; either the influ-
ence of local agencies continues to work in the
same direction on the skull-form, or else the original
race, the autochthonic if any race is so, having had

92 The Anthropological History of Europe.

time to assimilate itself to the conditions, and to
acquire potency in breeding true, and being perhaps
favoured by social conditions which I have before
spoken of, outlasts its conquerors or other new-
comers, and once more acquires predominance.

The only skull found in Norway which is with
absolute certainty referred to the stone period, that
of Svelrik, is precisely of the form just now in
question, but its breadth index is only 76*4 ; height,
74*41. Skulls of this type still occur among the
modern Norwegians, but not very commonly.
They are not like those of modern Lapps: as
Dr. Arbo says, we don't know what sorts of heads
the Lapps of those days had; but plenty of skulls
much more like those of Lapps have been found in
Germany, Belgium, and France; for example, some
of those Dupont found at Furfooz near Dinant;
apparently also the ancient round skulls of Sweden
are of this class.

Montelius, one of the best known of several able
Swedish archaeologists, is of opinion that there is
no evidence to shew any change of race in that
country since the stone period: he thinks, that is,
that the ancient long-headed race that first entered
the country after the small round-headed Lapps
or Finns, has always remained there undisturbed.
Aspelin, on the other hand, thinks that the Rox-
alani, those mighty men in scale-armour who came
into contact with the Romans on the Danube, were
the ancestors of the true Swedes as distinguished
from the Goths; that they dwelt somewhere east of
the Baltic, and crossed over in order to escape from

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 93

the Huns. This theory would suit well with the
old beliefs about Asgard and Woden ; and I believe
the Finns call the Swedes Ruotsi — Ruotsi-alainen—
Red-men. But the names of Roxalanian kings,
known to the Romans, have not a very Gothic
sound: they are Tascius an^ Rhescuporius.^

Since the above was written, very much has been
accomplished in the matter of Swedish anthro-
pology, chiefly by Gustaf Retzius and by Professor
Fiirst of Lund. We are now able to say with con-
fidence that there was a great general resemblance
in skull form between the people of the stone,
the bronze, and the iron ages. The typical form
through all these periods was very long, rather
narrow, and of height slightly less than the breadth.
Brachykephals were apparently rare throughout,
but the limits of variation of the cranial index seem
to have been greatest in the stone age (667 to 85'5),
and least in the iron age (69 to 80'6). The easiest
way of accounting for this is to suppose that the
earliest inhabitants were of two stocks, the more
numerous one, dolichokephalic, coming in from the
south, and acquiring, may be, in the lapse of ages,
through exposure to the influences of a boreal
climate, the blond complexion and lofty stature;
the other, brachykephalic, perhaps of Lappish kin-
dred, from the east, and that in course of time the
relics of the latter have become thoroughly amal-
gamated.

Any ethnological changes in Scandinavia during

' But Tassilo was a Duke of Bavaria some centuries later.

94 The Anthropological History of Europe.

the historic period, which here does not reach
very far back, must have been small. Ugrians
from Bjarmaland, fleeing from the Mongols, as
already mentioned, have settled in the north : and
other Finns, the Quaens, have followed them : the
Swedes have gradually colonised their own terri-
tory, and the Norwegians the higher and inner
dales ; the Danes have receded a little in the south,
while Frisians, Low Germans, even Wends, have
advanced : but the important movements have been
those of emigration ; from Sweden to Russia, from
Denmark and Norway to Iceland, Scotland, England,
Ireland, Normandy, and elsewhere, aye, even to
America.

Likely enough the physical types may have
changed a little, with the departure of the most
energetic and adventurous part of the population,
including probably an undue proportion of the
chieftain caste. There is an old document some-
where, quoted by Mallet or Dasent, which describes
the nobles as fair-haired, the churls red-haired, the
thralls black-haired, and which, as well as many of
the stories about trolls, seems to point to the expul-
sion or subjugation of a primitive dark race.

As to present conditions, we know a great deal
about the Norwegians, thanks to Dr. Arbo and
Sergeant Westly. Dr. Arbo's maps of stature, of
hair-colour and of head-breadth, have a very con-
fused, jumbled look, due, as he explains, to the fact
that the country is divided so trenchantly, by
mountains and forests, into districts which have
little communication with each other. The average

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 95

stature at twenty-two years seems to be 1680 to 1700
millimeters, or scarcely 5 feet 7 inches, less than
I should have expected : in some districts it rises
to 1730 (5 feet 8 inches). The skull is dolichous
(index after correction 74-75), in a number of dis-
tricts chiefly in the interior. Dr. Arbo says that
the prevalence of long heads concurs generally with
that of a high stature, and very blond hair, a more
advanced social condition, and sometimes aristo-
cratic, but certainly conservative, tendencies. He
^Iso says that prognathism goes oftener with broader
heads. Brachykephals (78'5 to 81), occupy especially
the coasts and the south-west. Near the head of
the Sognefiord, also, some dales are inhabited by a
population with rather broad heads (78*5) and dark
complexions, with great physical and intellectual
activity. It is difficult, however, to make out
much about colour : on the whole the hair seems
to be lighter in the south and west than in the
north and south-west.

It is lighter in the south-west in Sweden, where
West Gothland and Scania are said to produce the
fairest people. In Dalecarlia, where Quatrefages
and Hamy think they find the Cromagnon type,
the hair, I understand, is often dark. I found the
breadth-index of a number of Swedes 792, or after
correction for life and the integuments, 77'2, which
I believe is about where it is put by some dis-
tinguished savans.

Within the last few years, G. Retzius and Furst
have cleared up this part also of the subject, as
regards Sweden. Their researches, carried out on

96 The Anthropological History of Europe.

conscripts, have distinctly settled several important
points respecting the modern Swedes. In stature
they equal or surpass any European nation: their
conscripts averaging 1709 millimeters (67*28 inches),
while the provinces vary between 172,7 millimeters
(68 inches) in the Isle of Gottland, and 1691 milli-
meters (6657 inches) in Lappland, where, I appre-
hend, the pure Lapps pull down the average. Of
course, many of these young soldiers have not
attained their full growth. Speaking generally,
the central provinces produce taller men than
either the northern or the extreme southern ones.
They have also a lower kephalic index and a larger
proportion of true dolichokephals (long-heads).
Finally the centre, south, and west, have the greatest
preponderance of fair hair: the variation in the pro-
portion of light and dark eyes is less conspicuous.
Some anomalies which are discovered on minute
study are easily explicable by the history : thus the
heads are a little broader in Uppland and Scania
than one would have expected ; but Walloon and
other alien miners worked the mines of Uppland,
and Scania was long a province of Denmark. West
Gothland is apparently, though but slightly, the
most blond of all; but East Gothland is different
in that respect, and I see no facts sufficient to
indicate that there was any original difference
between the true Swedes and the Goths. Both
these, and the possible Roxalanians too, pretty
surely belonged to the same tall dolichoblond type.
Generally speaking, the coastmen have slightly
broader heads than the men of the interior. For all

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 97

Sweden the index, got by reducing that measured
by 2 degrees is only 75'8; but I myself got one of
77'2 from thirty Swedish sailors. This is doubtless
due to modern mixture of blood.

The Danes are rather lower in stature than is
generally supposed, and scarcely so tall as the
Frisians and Saxons of Sleswick, to the south of
them. The average adult stature seems to be
169'4 millimeters (Soren-Hansen) or 667 inches, and
the kephalic index 80'5, which, it interests me some-
what to know, is the exact figure at which I myself
arrived forty years ago, from observations on a few
(twenty-eight) Danish seamen. Steensby finds the
most prevalent type of skull and figure to be much ^
the same as that which the late Park Harrison and ) ^^;^.^^
D. Macintosh found in Kent and Wight, and labelled y
Jutish. Steensby correlates it with the ancient
Borreby type of Denmark and the Sion one of
Switzerland, and hazards a conjecture that it was
developed in the course of ages from the primeval
Neanderthaloid. The race history of Denmark is
that of a slow westerly drifting from Denmark to
England and the Cotentin, the gaps left being filled
up ultimately from the east, i.e., from Sweden or
even by Wends, or Saxons from the south.

In Thy, one of the districts where the stature is
highest, it is but 1670 millimeters on the average,
equal to something less than 5 ft. 6 in. As the sub-
jects are conscripts, probably one may allow an inch
for subsequent growth. In Wendsyssel and part of
Zealand it is 165'9, or 5 ft. 5* in. There are also
local differences in colour; evidently, as in some

98 The Anthropological History of Europe.

other countries, including our own, many more
women than men have dark eyes. On the whole,
blue or grey eyes and rather light brown hair pre-
vail. As to the form of the head, I have no figures
but my own, gathered from only twenty-eight sub-
jects; I make the index, corrected, to be 785, but
this may probably be in excess.

In stature* the Swedes probably equal any Euro-
pean nation ; but except the American statistics of
Dr. Baxter, in which are included a large number
of Swedish soldiers, I do not think there are any
published measurements on a large scale. Baxter's
average was 5 feet 69 inches; Gould's, on a smaller
basis, was higher.

It will be seen that the phenomena in Scandinavia
are consistent with the original occupation of these
countries by a dark race or races, with skulls tend-
ing, at least, to be broad, and with the subsequent
arrival from the south of a fairer race with long
heads, whose type assumed preponderance. The
blondness of the southern invaders might become
accentuated in and by the Scandinavian climate.
There seems little reason to suppose there has been
any subsequent increase of breadth except to the
small extent which incorporation of primitive strata
of population would imply. As for the Swedes,
there is a good deal of indistinct evidence to connect
them with the Lithuanian stock, whose index is not
very much higher.

The Icelanders must not pass unmentioned. The
ancient colonists of this everyway remarkable island
included a large proportion of the noble caste. It

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 99

has been suggested, also, that the captives they
brought from Ireland, and occasional intermarriages
with the Irish and Scottish Gaels, gave them the ray
of poetic imagination which sometimes brightens
their wonderful but sanguinary Sagas. We know
from these Sagas what manner of men they were in
personal appearance. They had the same varieties
of complexion and hair-colour that we have, and in
some cases Irish features came out with Irish blood ;
thus Kjartan had dark hair, and Skarphedin, the son
of Njal, was the most soldierly and active of men,
but he had an ugly mouth, and his teeth stuck out.

The modern Icelanders are big, fair men; the
only skull I can find mentioned is one at Gottingen,
with indices of 723 and 72'9. Some measurements
made for me by Dr. Hjaltelin come out a little
broader. In Germany and Central Europe, as else-
where, the very oldest skulls seem to be dolichoke-
phalic; in this case they are of the Canstatt type,
and one of them is the famous Neanderthaler.
Several broad skulls also have been found, which
have very respectable pretensions to primitive
antiquity.

The crania of the neolithic period throughout
the whole region under consideration, are in great
majority also dolichokephalic. Perhaps I should
make a partial and doubtful exception with regard
to the pile-dwellers on the Swiss lakes. But gener-
ally speaking, from the North Sea and the Baltic to
the Danube and the Alps, and eastward through
Bohemia to the Vistula and the Niemen, the pre-
vailing form was long. In many of the Hugel-

100 The Anthropological History of Europe.

graber, the dolmens and tumuli, a form occurs with
greater breadth and roundness, but still averaging
under 80.

We have no history for Germany until well into
the iron age, nor anything but probabilities based
on philological arguments. I am disposed to look
on the tenants of the Hiigelgraber as Gallic, but
this is but my own private conjecture. From
Tacitus's account, the Poles (Lygii, Lekhs) were
already in Poland in his time, but the modern Poles
have broad square heads (82'4).

The Germans had already begun to overpass the
Rhine and the Danube when the arrival of the
Romans checked their expansion, and determined a
flux of Kelts, Rhaetians, Pannonians and others,
mostly of the broadheaded division of Europeans,
to the frontier, whose descendants are still extant.

Meanwhile the mass of tall, blond, vigorous
barbarians multiplied, seethed and fretted behind
the barrier thus imposed. Tacitus and several
other classic authors speak of the remarkable uni-
formity in their appearance ; how they were all tall
and handsome, with fierce blue eyes and yellow
hair. Humboldt remarks the tendency we all have,
to see only the single type in a strange foreign
people, and to shut our eyes to the differences
among them. Thus some of us think sheep all
alike; but the shepherd knows better; and many
think all Chinamen are alike, whereas they differ,
in reality, quite as much as we do, or rather more.
But with respect to the ancient Germans, there
certainly was among them one very prevalent form

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 101

of head, and even the varieties of feature which
occur among the Marcomans, for example, on
Marcus Aurelius's column, all seem to oscillate
round one central type.

This is the Graverow type of Ecker, the Hohberg
type of His and Rutimeyer, the Swiss anatomists.
In it the head is long, narrow (say from 70 to 76 in
breadth-index), as high or higher than it is broad,
with the upper part of the occiput very prominent,
the forehead rather high than broad, often dome-
shaped, often receding, with prominent brows, the
nose long, narrow and prominent, the cheekbones
narrow and not prominent, the chin well marked,
the mouth apt to be prominent in women. In
Germany persons with these characters have almost
always light eyes and hair. Now comes a problem,
one of several in German anthropology. This
Graverow type is almost exclusively what is found
in the burying-places of the fifth, sixth, and seventh
centuries, whether of the Alemanni, the Bavarians,
the Franks, the Saxons, or the Burgundians.
Schetelig dug out a graveyard in southern Spain,
which is attributed to the Visigoths. Still the same
harmonious elliptic form, the same indices, breadth
73, height 74.

But Ecker, proceeding from the examination of
the ancient Alemanni to that of the modern
Swabians, was surprised to find that from among
them the Graverow type had almost disappeared,
and that a short broad squarish form, with flattened
occiput, had taken its place. Then Von Holder
investigated the Wirtembergers. They are mostly

102 The Anthropological History of Europe.

Swabians, too ; but probably the Alemanni occu-
pied this country before they spread into Baden
and the Brisgau ; and so there are more blonds in
Wirtemberg.

Accordingly, Von Holder found a small number
of the true Germanic or Graverow heads, but also
a few of the oblong form just mentioned, which
he calls Rhceto - Sarmatian, and once in a way a
globular form, his true Turanian, while the majority
is made up of various crosses between the three.
Von Holder wrote to me years ago, saying that he
much wished to come to England in order to see
the true Germans, who are really stronger here
than in Swabia, though in Franconia, a little further
north, they are numerous. The average index of
modern Wirtemburgers is about 81'6. Von Holder
found the long Germanic forms more prevalent
among noblemen and burghers than among artizans
and labourers. He thought the Sarmatic forms had
been strengthened, and the Turanian ones intro-
duced, by the settlement on the land of Slavonic,
Hunnish, Avar, and Magyar captives, taken in war
by the Germans.

It is difficult to dismiss Switzerland briefly. Its
proto-historic inhabitants were Rhaetian in the east,
Keltic-Helvetian in the west and north. What the
pile-dwellers had been is a subject by itself, which,
for the present, I will leave to Dr. Monro.

His and Rutimeyer found four ancient types:

1. The Hohberg, which is Germanic, though
they thought it Roman.

2. The Belair, which is Burgundian-German.

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Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 103

3. The Sion — large, longish but rounded, frown-
ing, aquiline — very like the modern Walloon.
Keltic-Helvetian.

4. The Disentis. Very short and broad, cuboid
but for the narrowness of the forehead. Rhaetian,
Rhaeto - Sarmatic of Von Holder, Keltic form of
some.

The Alemanni conquered and Germanized as
to language the centre and north-east, but the
Rhaetians in the south-east were little touched.
The Burgundians conquered the west, but did not
change the language there, which is now French.
The Disentis type of head is nowadays in great
majority. The greater stature in the west of
Switzerland may be credited to the Helvetii and
to the seven-foot Burgundians, as Sidonius Apolli-
naris called them : in the east it has probably been
reduced by the continued emigration of the taller
men, who would be largely of Alemannic type.
The skull-breadth which I found in two places was
83'6 : in parts of the Grisons it is probably greater.

In Bavaria the proto- historic population may
have been Keltic or Rhaetian even north-east of the
Danube, in the Upper Palatinate; recent discoveries
at Hohenbuchel and elsewhere seem to indicate a
non-Germanic population, with broadish heads and
broad flat noses ; but at least as early as the Roman
occupation the pure Germans (Marcoman or Her-
mundurian, probably), began to come in. Franconia
was probably Germanic from the first. Subse-
quently the Slavs from the Bohemian side settled
largely in Upper and Middle Franconia.

104 The Anthropological History of Europe.

Von Holder's work done at Regensburg (Ratis-
bon) is most pregnant and suggestive. From
the Roman cemeteries he obtained nine skulls
dating from the second century, with a breadth
index of - - - - - 79'4

From about a.d. 200, 8 skulls, - 771

From the third century, 13 skulls, - 77*4
From about a.d. 300, 10 skulls, - 757

From the fourth century, 22 skulls, - 751
And 50 skulls from an old Bavarian
burying-ground of the sixth or
seventh centuries, the Mero-
vingian period, - - - 73'8
I do not enter into particulars as to the other
racemarks in these crania ; in this instance at least
they vary pari passu with the breadth-index. We
have clearly a population of mixed Roman subjects,
gradually being infiltrated by Germans, until, after
the Roman dominion has come to an end, the Mar-
comanni, now called Bavarians, come in en masse.

Now look at the modern population. 193 skulls
from the crypt of St. Michael's Church, mostly of
the eighteenth, some of the seventeenth perhaps,
gave an index of 8316. The forms which Von
Holder calls Turanian, and which according to him
scarcely appear at all in the earlier periods, consti-
tute a very important element.

Now let us turn to Ranke, whose monograph on
his countrymen, the Bavarians, is very important.
He also finds for the modern Bavarians an index of
S3. Large as this is, it is exceeded on the one hand
among the people of Michelfeld in upper Franconia',

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 105

who are of Slav descent and dwell in a hilly dis-
trict; and again in the Bavarian highlands and in
the Tyrol generally, except in some valleys known
to have been colonised by the Alemanni, among
which, it is curious to note, is the Protestant Ziller-
thal. There are places in the Tyrol where it rises
to 85, or even higher, according to Frizzi.

Ranke finds but one leading type in Bavaria
proper, which he describes minutely, and which may
be familiar to many who have never been in Bavaria
or Tyrol, through the paintings of Defregger. It is
the cuboid form. Von Holder's Rhaeto-Sarmatic,
KoUmann's broad-headed long-faced type. But in
Franconia, outside the old Roman boundary wall at
Ebrach, whereas the average head-breadth sinks to
78*9, he finds nearly half the heads display a true
Germanic type, though not exactly the Hohberg
one ; and the curve of breadth gives one maximum
at 73 and another at 83.^

What seems strangest is, that if we draw out a
similar numerical curve corresponding to the indices
of a large number of Bavarians, we do not find
evidence of two unconformable, or at least as yet
unconformed races. On the contrary, the curve is
fairly regular. Ranke, who is a believer in external
agencies and in transformation, and thinks that life
among mountains in some unexplained way tends
to shorten and widen the head, says that in the
modern Bavarians a German face has been married
to a brachykephalic braincase. He does not, I think,

' See illustrative diagram.

106 The Anthropological History of Europe.

anywhere commit himself to the statement that
this broad head represents another race; but most
men would have no doubt about that. Anyhow,
the mixture must be wonderfully complete, quite
otherwise than in Wirtemberg, for Ranke finds that
the average head-breadth in blonds and brunettes is
precisely identical.

In Bohemia all the ancient skulls are long and
narrow, some to an extraordinary degree ; and this
is the case in the neolithic and bronze ages also.
There is something in the general contour of all
those which Weisbach figures, which, though the
measurements come out very much like those of
Graverow Germans, makes me think them Galatic :
they are less elliptic, more lozenge or coffin-shaped,
the brows less arched and prominent. Moreover,
Galatic they ought, I think, to be: the Boii, who
were either Galatic or Keltic, or a mixture of the
two, occupied Bohemia in those days. After them
the Marcomanni, the ancestors of the Bavarians on
the spear side, had a transitory occupation. The
modern inhabitants, Czechs, i.e., Slavs, have large,
broad, cuboid skulls, with an average index of
83'6. I recollect asking Professor Rokitansky
whether the Czechs were not brachykephalic.
Rokitansky was himself a Bohemian, and he was
evidently nettled by a question which he thought
touched upon a weak point in his fellow-country-
men. " Ah ! well ! " he said, " they are a very
clever people for all that."

In Austria proper, and the German territories
south of it, few very ancient crania have been found.

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 107

Those of the famous early-iron age station of Hall-
stadt, in lower Austria, have yielded, on an average
of 7, an index of 73. They are probably Galatic;
but the archaeological history of the Hallstadt dis-
coveries is still much debated. These long crania
may have been those of the ruling caste only.

Austria has been, ethnologically, a sandbank
washed to and fro, east and west, by the tides ; and
these have been latterly tides of Bavarians on the
one hand, and Avars and Magyars on the other, with
a kind of by-wash of Slavs from north and south.
The modern population is nominally German ; but
is apparently as mixed as might have been expected.
Zuckerkandl found in different ossuaries the follow-
ing respective breadth indices: — 84'7, 82'4, 81"7,
78'4. And Weisbach, who probably dealt with the
Viennese, who are certainly more Germanized than
the peasantry, puts the index at 811.

The highest index here, 847, is that of the
mediaeval and modern people of Hallstadt. And
Zuckerkandl asserts confidently, after an exhaustive
examination, that the cranial type of the inhabitants
of Hallstadt has not varied since the twelfth century.
This looks something like a crucial instance. The
Hallstadtians must surely have advanced somewhat
in civilization and intellectual development since
the twelfth century; yet their heads are none the
broader for it; on the other hand, it would be
difficult to say they were much further advanced
in the twelfth century, an age of barbarism, than
when they produced in prehistoric times, those
beautiful and elaborate works in bronze and iron

108 The Anthropological History of Europe.

which we call Hallstadtian ; yet their skulls grew
wider in the interim by more than 11 per cent.
Surely there was here a substitution of one race for
another, not a mere development. And we may
recollect that the very fountain of brachykephalism
lies not far to the south, in Illyria.

Hungary is another seething place of races and
nations, but from the character of its physical
geography has always attracted equestrian and
pastoral hordes. The most curious find of ancient
skulls there has been that by Dr. Lipp, at Keszthely
on the Plattensee. The conjectural period is the
latter part of the fourth century. He found the
long skulls of a tall stalwart people, evidently
Germanic (Quadans or Vandals.'') and those of
another race, short-statured and robust, with curved
legs and many signs of badly united fractures; their
heads were long, foreheads low and narrow, occiputs
broad, and cheekbones prominent. These Fligier
takes to have belonged to the equestrian Sarmatians
(the Jazyges), and to show a mixture of Iranian
with Ugrian or Ural-Altaic blood.

The modern Hungarians are a handsome people,
of short stature, with round heads, broad cheek-
bones, and generally dark hair and eyes, and, I
should say, with more of the Turkish than of the
Finnish aspect.^ But the Szeklers of the Trans-
sylvanian mountains, a remarkably intelligent
people, mostly, I believe. Unitarians, and claiming

^ Ibn Fozlan says, " Chazari Turcis (by which he means the Ugri)
similes non sunt : nigrum capillura habent."

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 109

to be the purest Hungarians, have more of the
Finnish facies. The country of Jaszag by its name
recalls the Sarmatian Jazyges just now mentioned,
some remains of whom may perhaps still be con-
stituents of its population.

Returning to the north of Germany, it may be
repeated that as a general rule the skulls of pre-
historic or early date are long, whether they are
supposed, from archaeological evidence, to be Ger-
manic, Slavic, or Lithuanic. The evidence is not
so cogent, or rather so abundant, in the case of the
Slavs, as they frequently resorted to cremation.
Great internal migrations have taken place in the
historical period within the limits of North Ger-
many, but no great immigration of any race not
previously represented. Yet evidence seems to
point to a change in the physical type.

The modern Poles, at least in the south, are a
fair race on the whole, but of short stature, with
broad heads (82*4).' All through Prussia the mixed
Slavo-German race is said to incline to brachy-
kephaly, though perhaps less so towards the coast.
West of the Elbe, in Westphalia, for example, there
seems to have been little change; but the Wends or
Slavs in Luneburg run up to 82, as Slavs ought to
do, though they be but a little isolated handful.
The dwellers in the flat alluvial lands of Holland
have as a rule rather broad, flat heads, elliptic in the
vertical aspect, cylindrical from behind, often some-
what prognathous. In Zealand (South Beveland),

* Majer and Kopernitsky.

110 The Anthropological History of Europe.

the average of certain skulls disinterred from a
drowned village, victims to the inundation of 1530,
actually rises to 85, according to Sasse; and De Man
of Middelburg finds something like it among the
living; he thinks these brachykephals, though
ancient, were not the earliest settlers in those parts.

Much discussion has arisen about these and such
like facts. Virchow maintains the existence of a
separate Frisian type, broader and flatter than the
ordinary German descended from the Graverow
men. Von Holder disputes this. I can only say
now what I have said already, that the conditions
of soil, water, etc., in the islands and marshlands of
Holland and Friesland might well be believed to
influence the physical development. The Beveland
folk, however, may not improbably be the remains
of an ancient tribe of brachykephals, driven into
the islands by the Batavi, or by still earlier invaders.

As for colour, complexion, one can hardly look at
Virchow's maps, the result of the gigantic inquest
carried out under his direction on the school children,
without coming to the conclusion that both latitude
and race must have to do with it. Beginning with
Sleswick, and then with the coast-line generally, one
finds a pretty regular falling off in blond hair and
blue eyes, and an increase in dark hair and brown
eyes, as one gradually proceeds southwards. It is
more when one looks into details that one recognises
the influence of race, when one sees for example
that Wurtemberg is fairer than Alsass and Bavaria,
which were later colonized ; and those who are
acquainted with the minute history of the provinces

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. Ill

of Germany can point you out numbers of instances
of that kind, but not such sharp contrasts as that
between the Flemings and Walloons.

Stature is another point of race difference. The
Wends were not much darker than the old Germans,
it would seem, but they were not so tall, while the
Frisians were taller than the Danes and Low
Germans ; and this difference follows them up in
the parishes or cantons which they respectively
colonized in Mecklenburg or further east. One in-
vestigator thinks that elevation of level has to do
with elevation of stature; another thinks he can
show that rich soil is more operative ; but they all
agree that race does tell, and they can all give reasons
for their belief.

One can see that the difference of latitude between
Schleswig-Holstein and Bavaria may have something
to do with the fact that the former had 80 per cent,
of children fair-haired, and the latter only 54 ; (I do
not say that it has, but that it may have) ; but surely
it is not the cause of the Schleswig conscripts
averaging 5 ft. 6'6 in., and the Bavarian conscripts
only 5 ft. 43 in. In Thuringia again, about Erfurt,
Reichel finds the conscripts average 1670 milli-
meters (5 ft. 5f in.). That is for the Germanic
Thuringians, but as one goes eastward there is a
regular decline of stature as the Slavonic element
increases, until about Halle, where the peasantry are
Germanized Slavs, the average is just under 5 ft. 5 in.
Yet the Halle district is the most fruitful.

As for the permanence of hair-colour, let us look
again at Bohemia. We know that the Germans,

112 The Anthropological History of Europe.

about the year 1000, regarded the Slavs as a people
less fair than themselves, though it may be that this
opinion did not refer to the northern Wends. And
we know that Ibrahim ibn Jacub, a Jewish traveller,
who wrote about a.d. 965, found the Bohemians
swarthy, usually with black, seldom with light hair.
Old Bohemian chroniclers contrast the black hair
and beards of their countrymen with the light
colours of the Saxons. Since then Bohemia has
been largely colonised by Germans, chiefly from the
fair Saxon, not from the darker Bavarian side. And
now the schools are divided into Bohemian or Czech,
German, and mixed. Well! the proportion borne
by the number of children with dark hair to that of
those with light hair, amounts in the —
German schools to - - '718 dark, 1,000 light.
In the Mixed schools to - 1,398 „ 1,000 „
and in the Czech schools to 1,793 „ 1,000 „
And it is curious that of 35 Czechish districts the
one which has the lowest proportion is called
Deutsch Brod, German Brod, doubtless because
there was once a Germany colony there, which has
been Slavonized in course of time in point of lang-
uage, but not in that of colour.

As France is the country in which anthropology
has been most zealously cultivated, and whose own
material has perhaps been best worked up, it is very
difficult to compress my account of it within the
necessary limits, and I shall avoid all discussion of
difficult points. Belgium will be best included with
France.

You may have gathered from an earlier lecture

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 113

that before the neolithic period brachykephalic as
well as dolichokephalic types of man were already
domiciled in France. The dolmens, which in the
western and north-western parts of France, but
especially in Bretagne, are very numerous, contain
in some cases only long-headed skeletons, but in
others there is a mixture of the types, such as does
not occur in England and Scotland. Whether the
long-headed dolmen builders were of the same race
as the older, Cro-magnon and Solutre, people, is
very doubtful; the general belief is that some of
them, at all events, belonged to an early wave of
the blond northern conquerors, and that these
passed over into Africa (where dolmens are exceed-
ingly numerous, and continued to be erected down
to a late period), and were the same people who
appeared in the Egyptian wall-paintings as fair and
blue-eyed, under the names of Tahen-nu, Tamahu,
and Lebo or Lybians. It is, however, quite con-
ceivable that the " swart Egyptians," struck by the
exceptional occurrence of a proportion of blonds
among their Libyan foes (who may have come from
Auress or the Riff, or some other mountainous
region where the type survives to this day), made
use of the peculiarity to distinguish in their wall-
paintings the entire Libyan race. What we may
really be certain of is, that the old long-heads
mixed with the short -headed people, of whom
probably a new wave had come in from the east
and brought with them the domestic animals and
some of the arts (though here again I am lapsing
into the dubious) — what we may feel sure of is that

114 The Anthropological History of Europe.

much amalgamation took place, that subsequently
one or more waves of blond conquerors came in
from east and north-east, and overlaid the greater
part of the country, and that when the Roman
period arrived they constituted a military aristoc-
racy, which was particularly strong in the north-
east, i.e., in Belgium. This blond race or caste was
called the Galli, Galatai ; the French call their type
the Kymric, and mostly believe that it was also that
of the Kimmerians ; but the nation was that of the
Kelts, and the mass of it, which, without much
positive evidence, is supposed to have been short,
sturdy, and of rather dark complexion, as it is now,
is spoken of by the French, since Broca's time, as
Keltic. This it is important to remember. Those
who think the blond northern long-headed people
were the original fabricators, or even the importers
into Europe, of the Aryan language, mostly suppose
that they imposed it at some time, not necessarily
after their arrival in France, upon the Kelts, who in
such case must have previously spoken an allo-
phylian, not an Aryan, tongue. If, however, this
conversion of the Kelts to Aryanism took place in
France, it is quite conceivable that they had previ-
ously imposed their own language on the Iberians,
or Mediterranean long -heads, whom they had
themselves subdued and overlaid already. This
suggestion I quote, but do not endorse.

The position, then, in the time of Caesar, was on
this wise : — Beyond the Garonne, and along the
Pyrenees, and as far east as the Rhone, the Aquit-
anians, an Iberian people. In the corner east of the

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 115

Rhone, the Ligurians, of whom more presently.
Throughout the mass of the country, from east and
south-east to west and north-west, pressing across
the Garonne, and stretching northward beyond the
'Seine, the Keltic nationality, composed as before
described. North-east of them, extending almost
or altogether as far as the Rhine, the Belgae, in whom
the Galatic element was stronger than in the Kelts, /
and who were beginning to be pressed upon and
interpenetrated by the next wave of blond long-
headed warriors, the Germans. Finally, on some
parts of the course of the Rhine, tribes thought to
be German rather than Galatic had already estab-
lished themselves on the left bank.

Subsequent changes were these : — The Roman
domination may have somewhat Italianized the
blood in particular districts, especially about the
Mediterranean coasts. The Kelts probably con-
tinued for some centuries to gain ground on the
Iberians beyond the Garonne. The blond, or as the
French say, the Kymric element, had probably been
considerably diminished during Caesar's conquests ;
but, as the empire declined, this was again some-
what increased by the settlement, especially in the
north-east, of Germanic captives as colonists.

At the time of the Volkswanderung, almost the
whole land was overrun and settled on by several
nations, mostly, but not all Germanic. In some
parts, however, the occupancy was simply military
or political. The Franks, for example, Salian and
Ripuarian, settled thickly in Flanders and Brabant
and along the left bank of the Middle Rhine respec-

116 The Anthropological History of Europe.

tively ; they also spread in a thin stratum over
most of the country north of the Loire and of
Burgundy, and somewhat more thickly in the
neighbourhood of Laon and Soissons, but scarcely
at all in Bretagne.

The Saxons, following the Franks, completely
Germanized Flanders and Brabant, the Frisians co-
operating. The respective shares of these people in
the work are difficult to appreciate, but Vander-
kindere has made the attempt, relying chiefly on
the analysis of local names. Saxons also settled
numerously about Bayeux and Caen, in what
afterwards became Normandy : they colonized the
peninsula of Batz in south Brittany, and probably
the Isle of Ushant, which has still the distinction of
producing the tallest and finest breed of men in
Brittany. The Burgundians settled in Savoy ^ and
in the Jura, and about Geneva and Lyons, and
subsequently in the country which still bears their
name. The Visigoths became the rulers of the
whole south of France, and gave a new military
aristocracy to many parts of it, not however to
Auvergne, where the Gallo-Roman gentry were not
displaced. The Franks, though they became politi-
cally dominant in the south after the defeat of the
Goths at Vouille, do not seem to have settled there
to any extent.

Finally, the Norwegians and other Scandinavians
occupied Normandy in large numbers, and settled

^

^ Probably they more or less completely abandoned Savoy subse-
quently, as no trace of their type seems to be found there now.

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 117

also in the north-east corner of Brittany, and to the
south of the Middle Loire, in proportion sufficient,
perhaps, to leave traces in the local forms and com-
plexions.

The relations of stature, head-breadth, and colour,
have been carefully studied both in France and
Belgium. In the latter country the results obtained
by observation are remarkably clear and satisfactory.
Vanderkindere managed to effect the investigation
of the colours of the hair and eyes of the school
children, and found that the line of demarcation
between the blonds and the brunettes coincided
pretty closely with that of language. The Flemish-
speaking cantons have the most blonds, the Walloon-
speaking have the most brunettes. The line of the
division runs due east and west, a little south of
Brussels and a little north of Liege.

Scarcely less satisfactory are Houze's observations
on head -form, which, however, do not extend beyond
provinces to cantons. But all the provinces north of
Vanderkindere's line have populations with longer
or narrower heads than any of those to the south of
it. In the north, or Flemish division, the range is
from 7670 in Limburg to 78'31 in West Flanders, in
the south from 78'51 in Namur to 8117 in Belgian
Luxemburg.

Now, of course, stature ought to follow the same
rules, and be higher to the north than to the south
of the frontier line of language. And so it is. Every
northern province stands above every southern one.
Limburg, the most purely Germanic and the most
long-headed, has also the tallest inhabitants (1666

118 The Anthropological History of Europe.

millimeters =5 ft. 5*6 in.*), and Hainault, which has
the most brunettes, has the shortest. The rule holds
good even to the length of the nose. The Flemings
have the most long, the Walloons the most broad
noses : the Bruxellese, lying in Brabant, but nearer
the Walloon border, naturally come between, but
nearest to the Flemings.

The point of stature is, I think, particularly re-
markable. Flanders and Brabant are flat, damp,
studded with unhealthy manufacturing towns;
the Walloon provinces are generally hilly, breezy,
agricultural or pastoral, and their recruits are on
the whole healthier, and fewer or quite as few of
them are absolutely undersized; and stature is
of all hereditary qualities one of the most easily
affected by media ; and yet withal the Flemings are
on the average taller than the Walloons, by virtue
of hereditary right.

A great deal of work of the same kind has been
done in France, and the results have been often, but
not always clear and satisfactory. Edwards pointed
out the prevalence of his Kymric type — long head,
square high forehead, long high nose, fair skin — the
well-known head of Dante has something of the
form — in the north-east of France. Then Boudin
and Broca proved that the departments in which
high stature prevailed formed a compact mass ex-
tending from the Straits of Dover and the mouth of
the Seine to the Jura and the Rhone, while those

^ These figures refer to conscripts. Full-grown men would probably
be nearly an inch taller, perhaps 5 ft. 6.J inches, or about the average
height of southern Englishmen.

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 119

where stature was lowest were aggregated in a
central mass, for the most part, with prolongations
to Brittany and the Pyrenees, while the departments
fringing the Bay of Biscay from the Loire to the
Pyrenees, and those bordering the Mediterranean,
occupied mostly an intermediate position. I have
spoken already of the double maxima of stature
discovered by Bertillon the elder in the lists of the
Doubs, indicating a mixture of two races, one of the
Keltic, with a stature of about 5 ft. 4 in., the other,
presumably Burgundian, of about 5 ft. 8 in. The
same phenomenon was subsequently discovered in
the lists of several of the northern provinces, such
as the Oise and the lower Seine, where the taller
men may be taken to represent the Galatae, Franks,
and Normans.^

Next followed Topinard with his great inquest
into coloration. On the whole, its results are not
far from what might have been expected ; of those
that are otherwise, some may depend on the personal
or local equation of the observers ; though Topinard
guarded himself as much as possible against this, by
issuing to his assistants standards of colour ; others
may depend on migrations or settlements anterior
to history, or which have taken place silently and
unnoticed in more modern days.

The north-west and extreme north come first, or
are most blond ; then the north-east and the region
of the Jura, then Brittany, the Isle of France, Savoy,
Berry, the Creuse, the Charente, then most of the

^ Lagneau, Anthrapologie do la France, p. 41. See diagram.

120 The Anthropological History of Europe.

centre and west centre, the Alps, etc., then Poitou,
Aquitaine and Languedoc and Auvergne, finally
the Pyrenees, Provence, and Corsica.

Of anomalies the most curious is the rather high

position of Creuse, which is certain though unex-
plained. Morbihan, too, stands second in the whole
list, which I can hardly understand, unless there are
portions of it very different from the parts about
Auray which I have visited. The Veneti, its old
inhabitants, were said to be Belgic ; but Caesar, as I
have told you already, says he exterminated them.

Thirdly comes Collignon's investigation of the
headbreadth, extending also to every department.
The resulting maps differ more, perhaps, from those
of stature and colour than these two differ from
each other ; for of the three great race-divisions of
France the true Celts are intermediate in colour,
but stand perhaps last in stature, while they have
by far the broadest heads. On the map of head-
breadth, therefore, they distinguish themselves most
clearly. They occupy the entire east of France, the
maximum of breadth being found in the Jura, with
a secondary maximum in the Cevennes. One pro-
longation is pushed across the Upper Garonne to
the Western Pyrenees, another into Touraine, Maine,
and Brittany. The southern coast is occupied by
the long-headed Mediterranean race, which is at its
purest in Corsica and Rousillon ; while the northern
long-headed race streams in from the Flemish
frontier, as far as Normandy and the Isle of France.
But there is another comparatively long-headed
area, including eleven departments, of which the

Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 121

Gironde and the Cher are the two extremes in local
position, and which can Only be supposed to repre-
sent the primitive long-headed (say Cro-magnon)
race, only moderately crossed by the Celts, and
somewhat reinforced by the northern blonds.

Taking the three maps together (those of Boudin
and Broca of Topinard and of Collignon) we get
this impression. First, that there is a short dark
long-headed race, which was aboriginal or else came
in across the Pyrenees ; this is the Iberian or Medi-
terranean, and is most pure, I repeat, in Rousillon
and Corsica. Secondly, a short, thick-set rather
dark and broad-headed race, which streamed in
from the east, from the side of the Alps and the
Jura, and so to the west-north-west and west-south-
west, towards Brittany and the Pyrenees. Thirdly,
a tall, blond, long-headed race, which came in from
the north and north-east, and also to some extent
by sea. This one, crossing with the second, has
produced the tall, blond, short-headed people of the
north-east (Lorraine, Burgundy and Tranche Comte)
and crossing with the first, to a less extent, may
have helped to produce some unexplained phenom-
ena in the west. There are, of course, sub-divisions
and sub-types also, but these we have not now space
to consider.

Those who are disposed to make much of the
influence of external agencies may note that in
France, as elsewhere in Europe, the roundest heads
are found in the mountainous districts. Of the
provinces of France, Brittany has been especially
studied by Broca, Guibert, Collignon and Chassagne.
9

122 The Anthropological History of Europe.

Here it is pretty clear that the blond people arrived
on the sea-coast, and thence filtered in along the
most easy channels, in some cases along the Roman
roads, with the result that at present the small,
swarthy round-headed breed is found most pure in
the central moorlands. De la Bourdonnais, return-
ing from travelling in the Himalaya, says these
Bretons are Mongoloid ; ^ and Renan, also a Breton,
when he visited a Lapp encampment, saw there
types of women and children, traits and customs,
which woke up in him his oldest memories. There
must, he thought, have been intermixture between
some branches of the Celts and some race resembling
the Lapps. "My ethnic formula for the Breton
would be," he adds, " a Celt, mixed with a Gascon,
and crossed with a Lapp."

In the Aveyron, the Rouergue, or land of the
Rutheni, where Collignon finds a breadth index of
83*50,^ Durand de Gros says that all the ancient
skulls found are long and narrow. The peasants
now have invariably broad skulls, but the educated
townspeople have not ; ^ moreover, while the peas-
ants are dark, the country squires, probably of
Gothic descent, are generally fair.

All these facts may perhaps be explicable on the
theory of permanence of types ; the ancient skulls

^ Voyage en Basse Bretagne, etc. Paris, 1892.

2 Reduced from the living, as usual.

* Lapouge, in the Herault, and Ammon in Swabia, find long heads
prevalent in the past, in towns, in the upper and cultivated classes,
short heads in the present, in the country, in uncultivated plebeians.

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Scandinavia, Central Europe, France. 123

preserved may have belonged wholly to a ruling
race, who were Galatic ; and the short swarthy
round-headed peasantry may have existed on the
land then and during all subsequent revolutions.
But any other interpretation involves extreme
difficulty.

LECTURE V.

SPAIN, ITALY, AND THE BRITISH ISLES.

Spain and Portugal — De A.ranza(li on the Basques — Italy : The
Ancient and Modern Romans — The Sards, purest race in
Western Europe — The Jews ; their original and secondary types
— The Gypsies — Brief sketch of the Races of Britain : Specimen
districts — Pembrokeshire — The Isle of Man.

rpHE history of Spain and Portugal is for our
-*- purpose comparatively simple, so far as we
know it. The famous Gibraltar skulls, described
by Busk, are long (75'2). At Mugem, in Portugal,
certain crania reported by Oliveira, and believed to
be quaternary, yielded the usual greatly discrepant
measurements. Two long heads averaged a breadth
of 73-8, but three other skulls gave 82'8, 86-9, and 93'4 !
these last are described as Mongoloid or Lappish
in form. Later specimens are mostly long, and MM.
Siret and Jacques, who disinterred near Almeria a
vast number of the early metallic period, found that
most of them were of that modified "Cro-magnon
type which we call Iberian, and which De Quatre-
fages and Hamy, describe thus: "Large volume,
lengthened form, subpentagonal shape in the 'norma
verticalis,' width of face, low or vertically com-
pressed orbits, long and narrow nose (leptorhine)."
This description, with little modification, would

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 125

apply to a great many Gaels, whether Irish or
Scotch.

Subsequent invaders have not probably altered
the type very much, except locally and in certain
classes. We do not know much about the Kelt-
iberians ; nor whether any modification of the true
Keltic type can be found in, for example, Aragon or
Galicia. ^ All the other invaders of Spain have been
dolichokephalic, more or less, whether Carthagin-
ians, Romans (mesokephalic, strictly speaking), Goths
and Suevians, Saracens. Of these last, the Berber
element, which was probably larger than the Arab,
was nearly identical with the Iberian in type, differ-
ing most obviously in the form of the nose, which
is shorter and broader. The Basques have been
supposed to be the purest specimens of the Iberian
race; and have been the objects of much scientific
curiosity on that account. William von Humboldt
thought their language Turanian; and some wicked
fellow seems to have sent to Retzius three skulls,
which purported to be Basque, and possibly were so,
and which happened to be most Mongolically round.
Broca, however, got possession of the occupants of a
churchyard in Guipuzcoa, and found their skulls
were rather long than short, but in the manner
called occipital dolichokephaly, i.e., roughly, with a
large proportion of the length abaft the ears. They
were capacious, larger than ordinary Parisian skulls,
and on the whole answered to the Iberian type, as
lately described.

^ Fifty Asturians had a breadth-index of 79-0, thirty-eight Gallegos
77*3. See note further on.

126 The Anthropological History of Europe.

Dr. Telesforo de Aranzadi y Unamuno, himself a
Basque of Guipuzcoa, has produced a careful mono-
graph on the physical characters of his own people.
I may mention some of his results. He finds the
index of headbreadth, corrected, 111. The average
stature at the age of 21 ranges in different towns
and villages from 1610 to 1680, or from 5 ft. 3 in. to
5 ft. 6 in., which is beyond that of southern France.
He finds, per cent., of the eyes, 19 blue, 3 gray, 17
green, 18 greenish hazel, 1 blueish hazel, 41 brown ; of
the hair, 23 blond (rubio), 13 medium, 40 dark brown
(eastano), 24 black (moreiio). These proportions of
colour, having been noted according to Broca's scale,
may be fairly relied upon, and indicate a greater
tendency to blondness (xanthosity) than might have
been expected. Moreover, De Aranzadi's elaborate
maps show that the blonds and blue-eyed folk are
not confined to the ports or great ways of communi-
cation, where recent colonization from abroad might
have been suspected; but that they are scattered
pretty uniformly through the country. Certainly
we have not here arrived at the focus of the brun-
ettes of Western Europe.

In the graphic curve of headbreadth there are two
distinct maxima, one at 76 and one at 80, or, in the
skull, after reduction, 74 and 78, indicating probably
that there are at least two elements in the race.
De Aranzadi thinks that there are three, one with
dark hair and eyes, rather narrow head, middle
stature, broad mandible, nose often concave — a
second with green or greenish-hazel eyes, darkish
brown hair, a broad head, low stature, breadth be-

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 127

tween the eyes, narrow mandible ; and a third with
blue eyes, light hair, narrow head, straight narrow
nose, tall stature. He supposes the first of these to
be the true Iberian, and related to the Berber, the
second to be Ugrian or Finnish,^ the third to be a
later addition, Kymric or Germanic; and he evi-
dently, but cautiously, indicates the conjecture that
this last is related to the accursed race of the Cagots,
who used to be relegated to separate hamlets or
villages, and had a separate church door for them-
selves. '^

' Some would say Keltic. It is common in Bretagne, I should say.

'De Aranzadi, with De Hoyos Sainz as coUoborator, has, since the
delivery of these lectures, laid a foundation for the physical anthro-
pology of Spain, which, based upon observation of about 450 skulls,
from all parts of Spain except the east, gives hopes of general sound-
ness, though the smallness of the numbers from certain provinces does
not allow confidence in its details. Spain resembles Britain, apparently,
in having no brachykephalic province. But De Aranzadi and De Hoyos
detect the influence of broad-headed Keltic invaders on the native
Iberian breed, especially in Asturias and Estremadura. In Asturias,
where it is greatest, the people are said to be sturdy and thickest, with
brown hair and eyes, and with large heads averaging 79 in breadth-
index (in the skull). The Berber element, brought in by the Moors,
and powerful in the south of Spain, is discriminated by greater breadth
of nose from the true Iberian. Olovir has since followed with his
valuable and elaborate memoir on the kephalic index, which confirms
generally the conclusions already stated. It would seem that the
Keltic invaders of Spain must have entered it by the western extremity
of the Pyrenees and pushed chiefly in a western direction. The east of
Spain must have remained pretty purely Iberian, and is strongly
dolichokephalic to this day : the centre and south vary locally, but
the indices are either dolicho or raeso. The types were probably not
much affected by the Carthaginian and Saracen colonizations : the in-
vaders were largely Berbers, and the Semitic Arabs were not widely
different.. The extreme length and narrowness of the nose in the
finest Highland type of face is mainly attributable, I think, to the
Iberian element in them.

128 The A nthropological History of Europe.

Portugal has long had a peculiar interest for us
Englishmen. It was with English aid and guidance
that she won her independence at Aljubarotta, the
Portuguese Bannockburn, against the Castillians and
their French allies. The northern Portuguese are,
I believe, much like the Gallegos, a Keltiberian race
with some admixture of the Germanic Suevian, who
filled in the North-west of the Peninsula the role
which the Visigoths played elsewhere. But the
heroic race of Lusitania, the conquerors of Brazil, of
Abyssinia, of Congo, of Mozambique, of the Indies,
were exhausted in those mighty efforts; and the
southern Portuguese, especially the townsfolk, are
said not only to be largely of Moorish and Semitic
blood, but to have greatly degenerated.

In Italy, as in most other countries, the skulls
with any pretensions to quaternary date are mostly
long, but very broad ones do occur among them.

A little later a number of skulls found in various
parts of North Italy, and studied by Nicolucci, give
indices running up to very high figures, and have
furnished the basis for the construction of what is
generally called the Ligurian type, a very broad
form resembling the Keltic, but distinct in facial
features. In the Bolognese succeeded each other
the Umbrian populations (heads broadish), the Et-
ruscan (mesokephal, about 77-78, rather Semitic in
appearance), and the Keltic or Gallokeltic (broader
again). The modern heads are yet a little broader,
and better developed anteriorly. But about Rome,
Nicolucci has brought out a striking fact. The heads
of the old Romans were of a fine type, well balanced,

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 129

well rounded, yet boldly outlined, full alike in
temples and occiput, giving one somehow the idea
of strength and practical ability— at least one thinks
so. But their main dimensions are exactly the same
as those of the modern Romans.

Ancients, . . . Breadth, 781. Height, 73-8.
Moderns, . . . Breadth, 78' 2. Height, 73'2.

No advance here certainly ; but perhaps one might
rather have expected retrogression. For the old
crania that have been preserved for us were not
those of slaves and proletarii, whereas the modern
ones are probably for the most part of low class.

The history of Italy is that of successive waves of
invasion from the north, mostly, however, spending
themselves in the north. The fertile and attractive
Sicily was the object of desire and prey to every
ambitious or predatory race, from the Carthaginians
and Greeks, to the Saracens, Normans, French, and
Spaniards. But in Calabria, Corsica, Sardinia, pro-
bably the first occupants, Mediterranean, Iberian
if you will, are still the preponderating element.
They are short, dark, well formed, and decidedly
long-headed. In Sardinia, where they are most
free from admixture, the skull breadth averages
72'8, and varies little. Nine ancient Sards gave
one of 725, practically identical. The hair of the
Sards is said to almost always black: the stature
of conscripts at twenty years is but 5 ft. 2*6 in.
(159 cm.^) ; while the Sicilians, of more mixed blood.

^ Livi. This seems to be about the average : it varies in the nine
districts from 5 ft. 1-3 in. to 5 ft. 4 in.

130 The Anthropological History of Europe.

rise to 5 ft, 3'3 in. Throughout Italy the stature
may easily be accounted for by considerations of
race, but hardly in any other way. Thus the
Piedmontese, Kelto-Ligurian, and very broad -
headed (83 to 89, living index) are short (5 ft. 3'8 in.
— 162 cm.), the Venetians, mainly lUyrian, with a
little of the Lombard, are broad-headed too (84*8
to 85*5), but much taller (165 cm.^— 5 ft. 5 in.),^ thus
resembling their neighbours and kinsfolk on the
north-east of the Adriatic. In the south, as well
as in the islands, narrow heads and low stature
prevail, though the stature does not vary exactly
in accordance with the head-breadth. There are
some anomalies, especially in Central Italy, which
we are quite unable to explain. Thus the very
highest average stature (166'25 — 5 ft. 5| in.) occurs
in the neighbourhood of Lucca, but in combination
with a rather long and narrow head ; while on the
other hand there is a district extending eastwards
from Gaeta along the coast, where the inhabitants
combine a shorter stature, a narrower head, and a
distinctly lighter colour^ than those obtaining in
any neighbouring district.

This may be the best opportunity for the
consideration of the physical type of the Jews.
As is the case with so many other people whom we
have had to discuss, the two most usual physical
tests of race, namely head-breadth and hair-colour,

^ Ridolfo Livi, Statura degli Italian!. L'Indice Cefalice degli Italiani.

2 The frequency of blonds was remarked by Dr. Hodgkin as well as
by myself. The area was that of the Volsci, I believe.

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 131

when applied to the Hebrews, seem at first sight
to result in complete failure; but it is only at first
sight. The Jews are generally what Huxley calls
melanochroi: that is, they are white men with
dark hair. But there is everywhere among them
a proportion of blondes, and a quite notable one
of red-haired or red-bearded individuals. As for
their skulls, there are two well-marked types;
one, and probably the original, is the one we are
more familiar with : it is long, ooidal, rather narrow
in forehead, and resembles the Arabian very closely,
as might have been expected. The other is larger
and much broader, and is found chiefly in countries
where the prevailing Gentile type is broad. The
natural interpretation of these facts is, that the
Jews are a much less purely bred population than
they are generally supposed by themselves and
others to be ; and that, wherever they are, they take
in sufficient of the surrounding anthropological
elements to assimilate their form of head to the
prevailing one. The former of these statements is
doubtless correct, but not the latter. It is true
that there have been periods and localities — the
Gothic period of Spain, for example, that of the
Khazar empire in southern Russia, and the early
period of Hungarian history — when proselytism
prevailed, when conversions to Judaism were
common, and intermarriage occurred frequently.
But for many centuries such has not been the case
unless to a very trivial extent, and conversions in
the other direction can only have tended to Judaize
the Gentiles, not to Gentilize the Jews. The facial

132 The Anthropological History of Europe.

features of the race, again, are very characteristic,
and are almost as universal among the brachy-
kephalic as among the dolichokephalic Jews, fining
down a little, but still noticeable, in the blonde
variety.

Roughly speaking, the Sephardim or Spanish
Jews belong to the long-headed ; the Ashkenazim
or German, Polish, and Russian Jews to the broad-
headed type; but not only the Dutch, but the
north - west German Jews must apparently be
counted with the former: thus the indices of
breadth in the small collections of Gottingen and
Amsterdam are both 77 or 78, with moderate
elevation. In London, Messrs. Jacobs and Spielman,
the former in two elaborate papers,^ have devoted
attention to these points. Curiously enough, they
seem to deem it needful to make a kind of apology
for the presence among their fellow-people of so
many longheads, as though they were an inferior
race. This is a kind of sign of the times : the
broader-headed Ashkenazim are crowding in: for-
merly the Sephardim were the more respected,
and they certainly have the original type. The
Italian Jews are Sephardim, and those of the
Levant belong to the same class: they are some-
times blonde and often red-bearded, more often
than is the case with any other of the numerous
races mingled in those parts, so that they can
hardly have acquired this character from their
neighbours. Ikow found the index of breadth in

^Journal of the Anthr. Institute, Vols. 15 and 19.

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 133

the Jews from south of the Balkan only 74*5.^
They are in large proportion descendants of the
Spanish Jews, once so numerous and influential
in that country, and so ruthlessly persecuted and
expelled by the Catholic sovereigns : most of these
were hospitably received by the more tolerant
Musalmans.

Now for the other type. It is not recent, for
KoUmann of Basel found, in a collection from an
Israelite cemetery of mediaeval date, a very high
index. It does not vary up and down with the index
of the neighbours, for Majer and Kopernitsky found
it 81*5 in Galicia, whereas that of the Poles is 82*4,
and of the Ruthenians (Red Russians) 82'3 ; ^ and
Stieda and Dybrowski found it 83 in sixty -seven Jews
of Minsk, near the Lithuanian frontier, where the
index of the natives is pretty surely less. Ikow in
Russia found it 81'3, Blechmann something more.
It is evident that the true Syrian-Hebrew type is in
a decided minority. The Karaites of the south give
an index of 83'3: they show distinct signs, especially
in their broad flat faces, of Tartar admixture,
probably dating from the time of the Khazars,
whose Khan with many of his people long pro-
fessed Judaism, and that as early as the eighth
century. The breadth of the skull is exaggerated
in the Karaites, as I believe it to be in some other
little-suspected cases, by the use of a cradle-board
in infancy.

^Archiv fur Anthropoloffie.

' After the proper deductions for the soft parts.

134 The Anthropological History of Europe.

There is not time to discuss the facts which are
cited by Ikow from Halevy, and which indicate that
Jews, coming probably through the Caucasus from
Babylonia and Persia, were already in Russia in the
first century of our era, and that the type which
now prevails among Russian Jews is derived from the
various Assyrian, Armenian, Iranian and Caucasian
people among whom they dwelt and proselytized
during the centuries after the captivity, and in the
course of their northward progress. The only con-
siderable difficulty that remains is the occurrence of
the broad large head among the mediaeval Jews in
Paris ^ as well as in Basel. Had the Russian Jews
already begun to press westwards ; or was it purely
a result of prosely tism from the Kelts ?

As for colour, there is an approach to a national
type, which causes the Jews to rank as a dark race
among the fair people of northern Europe, but as a
fair one in the Levant. The frequency of red hair
among them is curious: it has been noted almost
everywhere, though it is nowhere so extremely
common as some would have us believe. But there
is much red pigment in the hair of all Jews whom I
have examined; though usually the abundance of
dark pigment obscures the fact. Jacobs therefore
suggests that the flagrancy of red hair among them
is due to some defect of nutrition, whereby the
common dark pigment is not secreted. This ex-
planation, so far as it is one, would obviously apply
to other rufous races also. I long ago suggested^

^ Crania Bthnica, p. 513.

"^Phys. Char, of the Jewish Mace. Ethnol. Transactions.

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 135

that the Jews might have inherited the red colour
from the Edomites, the descendants of Esau, who
were ultimately incorporated ; but Jacobs very truly
remarks that we have no proof that the Edomites
were red-haired. The redness indicated by their
name may have been the colour of the soil, or the
tint of skin. Professor Sayce has put forward a
most plausible conjecture. The Egyptians repre-
sented the Amorites as red-haired; and their remains
were almost certainly incorporated by the Jews.

The history of the Gypsies should be interesting
to Scotchmen, as owing to the character of the
country in former days, which rather invited those
so disposed to a wandering life, Scotland was a
favourite resort with these extraordinary people.
The earliest notice that we have, which can possibly
refer to them, is the account given by Herodotus of
the Sigynnae, who in his day occupied Hungary : he
gives a particular account, often quoted, of their
little hairy ponies, not fit for riding, but swift in
drawing chariots. The names Sigynnae and Zig-
euner must assuredly be one and the same : it is not
easy to explain how it came to be given, after the
lapse of so many centuries, to a people having no
connection with the one which first bore it ; and it
is curious that the Gypsies should to-day be most
numerous precisely in the old territories of the
Sigynnae. The difficulty would however be much
greater of getting over the statements of their hav-
ing first appeared in Europe after the ravages of
Tamerlane in India. Their presence, and numbers
and conspicuousness in Scotland were made use of.

136 The Anthropological History of Europe.

some years ago, by Mr. D. M'Ritchie, who wrote a
work on Scottish ethnology, in which he treated
them as the remains of a primitive dark race (Allo-
phylian, perhaps, rather than Turanian), once
numerous and even powerful, but bearing to the
civilised inhabitants the status of outlaws, a kind of
relation like that of the Iliyats in Persia to the
Tajiks, or rather, perhaps, that of the Bushmen to
the other inhabitants of South Africa.

The ballads and traditions about Johnny Faa,
Lord of Little Egypt, and the Countess of Cassilis,
are curious: —

' And we were fifteen well-made men,
Altho' we were na bonnie ;
And we were a' put down for ane,
A fair young wanton leddy.'

Here comes out the popular dislike to a swarthy
complexion, with a testimony to the unmistakable
beauty of physical frame which characterises these
people, their lithe, light graceful bodies, whose
mould was formed, centuries ago, in a warm out-
door climate, but remains unaltered in the damp
chilly north. Their complexion does not seem to
have changed much : apparent exceptions may well
be ascribed to admixture by adoption. Kopernitsky
has written an elaborate paper on their form of
head and face, which is thoroughly Indian. The
skull is oval, rarely elliptical, the forehead being
narrow and the temporal regions flat, so that the
cheekbones, though not really wide, stand out.
The face is rather long, there is a slight degree of
prognathism of the upper-jaw, the nose is long,

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 137

narrow above and gradually and regularly widening
downwards, a very characteristic feature. The
index of breadth is 77'1, of height 75 — very good
proportions; but on the whole the skull is small.

Now at last we come to the British Isles. I
find it impossible to put into a lecture what I
have had some difficulty in compressing into a
moderate-sized volume. I will, therefore, simply
give a very brief sketch of the history; and then
enter into some details regarding a few specimen
districts, much as the scholastikos who wished to
sell his house exhibited a brick from it as a sample.
I will say nothing about eoliths or their hypo-
thetical producers. Any opinion I may have of
them can have very little value; and they cannot
be said to enter into the domain of history.

Britain has received its successive populations, as
it has accepted its fashions, from the neighbouring
continent, and has, therefore, always been behind-
hand in these respects. We had our palaeolithic
men, our people who used implements of unpolished
stone, perhaps a little later than the beginning of
the rude -stone period in France, but still in the
time of the great extinct mammals. But we have
no absolutely indubitable osseous remains of them.
The Galley Hill skull, for example, is dated later by
some people. The human remains discovered in the
Cattedown Cave, near Plymouth, by Mr. Burnard,
have a strongly probable palaeolithic date, and a by
no means low or degraded type. Boyd Dawkins
thinks our palaeolithic men may have been Eskimo,

10

\J

138 The Anthropological History of Europe.

or of Eskimoid type. Did their posterity survive
in these islands? I believe they did, and do still;
but he thinks otherwise, and his opinion is of
course weighty.

We are accustomed to say that during the
neolithic period there was but one race of men in
Britain, that whose remains have come down to us
in the long barrows or galleried tumuli, and which
has been frequently described by anthropologists,
generally with a comparison to the Basques. They
have a considerable likeness to the grave -row
skulls: their breadth index, for example, is about
the same: thus Thurnam gives it at about 71, but
Barnard Davis's figures work out to 72"8, which is
probably nearer the real average. The height,
also, as in the Grave-row type, is apt to exceed the
breadth : the length often or usually depends more
on occipital than on frontal development. Points
of difference are, that the outline of the Grave-row
or Germanic forehead, in the vertical aspect, is
usually more convex, while that of the neolithic
British forehead is flattened and square : the Ger-
man face, too, is rather more apt to be prognathous.
To your own townsman,^ Sir Daniel Wilson, now
of Toronto, is due the credit of the discovery that
the primitive longheads in Scotland preceded the
broadheads, and were probably a different race.
The late Dr. Thurnam afterwards took up the idea,,
and went far towards proving that it was correct for

* These lectures were delivered in Edinburgh, and before the
lamented death of my friend.

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 139

England also; and his name is more generally known
in connection with the discovery.

Now, it is curious that Sir Daniel Wilson selected
— and figured in his beautiful work on the Prehis-
toric Annals of Scotland — two crania as specimens
of this earlier race, in both of which the frontal
region has the Germanic rather than the Ibero-
British form. And he proposed for them the name
of kymbekephalic — boat-shaped — which appears to
me by no means applicable to most of those I have
just called Ibero-British. It was intended, I take it,
to imply a form highly convex, rather than squared,
in forehead as well as occiput, with possibly a carina
or heel running along the sagittal region, and giving
it a roof-like contour. It is conceivable, then, that
there may have been an ethnic difference between
the neolithic inhabitants of the northern and south-
ern parts of the island; the former may have
belonged to, or at least may have resembled the
Canstatt type or stock, the latter the Cromagnon.
Mr. Anderson, however, points out that the horned
cairns, so numerous and remarkable in Caithness,
are present from north to south of the whole island,
and may be an index of the presence of one race
throughout. Those in Caithness have not, I believe,
yielded measurable crania, except one from the cairn
of Get, with an index of 76'5, figures beyond the
usual upper limit of British neolithic people.

Linguistic evidence, as Professor Rhys has shewn,
indicates the presence of an Iberian form of speech
in ancient Scotland ; and there are those who find
traces in our island of a Turanian speech, but no

140 The Anthropological History of Europe.

one nowadays, I believe, finds any of a prehistoric
Teutonic one. Again, the cave-men disinterred by
Boyd Dawkins in North Wales, and particularly the
skulls from Forth -y-chvkf^areu figured by him, seem
to me to differ considerably from the common
British neolithic type, not merely in breadth but in
physiognomy. I have pointed out, in my book on
The Races of Britain, the existence in our modern
population of two distinct types, scattered in small
numbers over a great part of the west of the British
Islands. These I call Mongoloid and Africanoid :
the former is probably descended from the race of
Furfooz in Belgium ; the latter may be an Iberian
variety; but its prognathous character separates it
from the ordinary long-barrow type, which it other-
wise much resembles. It presents, as a rule, blue or
grey eyes with dark curly hair, while in the Mongo-
loid type the eyes are brown and oblique, and the
hair brown or dark and straight. If the absence of
the latter from neolithic interments be objected, I
must answer that serfs are rarely admitted to consort
with their lords either after or before death, though
occasionally they may be slaughtered in order to
accompany a chief to the other world.

Next came the race which in these islands —
not elsewhere — is identified with the importers
and users of bronze. It was robust and tall,
according to Thurnam, not less than 5 feet
9 inches (1752 m.m.) in stature, though some later
authorities think this an exaggerated calculation,
bony, large-brained, harsh-featured, high -nosed,
with prominent brows, and a breadth index over

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 141

80. I believe Park Harrison to be right when he
affirms that in our times the majority of people
with these characteristics have light hair and long
adherent ear-lobes. They resembled the Borreby
race of Denmark, and the Sion or Helvetian race of
ancient Switzerland, though with somewhat larger
breadth. And men of this type, but perhaps gen-
erally dark-haired, abound among the Walloons of
southern Belgium. Our race may have come from
Denmark or from the north of France, or from
Belgium ; and it may have brought with it an Aryan
language of the Keltic species. Deniker, and per-
haps others, find a resemblance between this type
and the modern lUyrian one ; but the geographical
remoteness of the two is a difficulty. I confess I
cannot at all clearly make out from the relics of
interments a Gaelic and a Kymric-speaking race.
For if these bronze-folk brought the Gaelic their
descendants ought to abound in Ireland, which I do
not think is the case nowadays. Perhaps they
may have been the ruling race there for a time, but
have been gradually worked out by continual
warfare and slaughter. They were apparently a
permanent breed resulting from a cross of the
blond longheads with the Kelts, and this, again
crossed with the Iberians, seems to form a large
element in our Highland population, particularly, I
think, in Athol. An important anomaly occurs in
the East Riding of Yorkshire, where much investi-
gatory work has been done by Canon Greenwell
and Dr. Wright, and especially by Mr. Mortimer,
founder of the Driffield Museum. In that region,

142 The Anthropological History of Europe.

round barrows, instead of yielding only broad skulls,
seem to hold long and short ones indiscriminately,
and the owners of the latter seem to have been no
taller, if even so tall as those of the former.

Mr. John Gray thinks he is able to separate a
distinct short-headed breed who buried their dead
in short cists and who were of short or moderate
stature. One such interment was found at Harlyn
Bay in North Cornwall, among a community of
long or middle heads : this was probably late Keltic.

What and how many may have been the subse-
quent immigrations from Belgic Gaul we have no
craniological evidence to show. The practice of
cremation is no doubt to some extent responsible
for this lacuna. Sir Daniel Wilson thought that
another long-headed race, which he called Keltic,
succeeded the bronze folk in Scotland; but it is
likely that by that time there was no great mass of
dolichokephali left in Gaul whence these could have
been derived; and that Wilson's Kelts were the
result of the mixture of earlier races. Wilson's
ideas were but guesses ; he had little material, but
they were very clever guesses. Of the colonization
or rather conquest of Ireland by a Keltiberian race
from Spain, though I strongly believe in it, I am
not able to say anything from this point of view.
It is in Kerry that I have found the Keltiberian
aspect most common. With the Roman occupation
it is much the same. The racial elements which
they imported must have extremely mixed, and
probably left scarcely any permanent traces, though
there may be some in a few ancient towns such as

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 143

Gloucester or Leicester. Among relics from the
Romano-British villages, our knowledge of which
has been so much increased by General Pitt-Rivers,
there are one or two skulls which, in the opinion of
Dr. Garson as well as of myself, show Roman or
Italian characteristics.

It may be doubted whether the Anglo-Saxons, at
the time of their arrival in this country, which I
for one believe to have been in the fifth century,
were anything like a homogeneous race. The
Frisians were largely represented among them, and
the form which Virchow considers Frisian occurred
among them, and is common among their descend-
ants still. For my own part, I doubt whether this
broader Frisian or Batavian form is anything but a
variant of the ordinary Germanic, developed perhaps
under peculiar conditions. At Bremen the two
forms occurred, according to Gildemeister, in the
earliest days of the city. Among the Anglo-Saxon
crania figured by Davis and Thurnam (perhaps I
should say Saxon, as they are all from the south-
east of England), those of Wye Hill, Litlington, and
Brighthampton exhibit the Grave-row type, those
of Harnham and Linton and Firle, something more
of the broader and lower Batavian, with the more
rounded occiput; that of Fairford is a palpable
mixture of the Saxon father and British mother,
the former giving the brain-case, as Davis himself
suggested. John Bull is of the Batavian type : the
Grave-row, that of the barbarian warrior, is perhaps
rather more aristocratic ; but the outlines of the
former may be connected, as Virchow thinks pos-

144 The Anthropological History of Europe.

sible, with the obstinacy and love of freedom and
individuality of both Frisian and Englishman.
" These men," said an old chronicler of the Frisians,
" been high of body, stern of virtue, strong and
fierce of heart: they be free, and not subject to
lordship of any man; and they put their lives in
peril by cause of freedom, and would liever die than
embrace the yolk of thraldrom."

The Scandinavian invasions increased the pro-
portions of the blond types in most parts of England
and Scotland. Perhaps invasions is hardly the
appropriate term, for in some cases it is clear that
peaceful and gradual colonization followed the in-
vasions and ravages. The distinction made by the
Irish between the Danes and the Norwegians, the
former of whom they called Black, the latter White
Strangers, is a matter of curious interest and diffi-
culty. For the Danes too are generally light com-
plexioned, though dark hair and eyes are not so
uncommon, especially among the women. Frequent
features in the modern Scandinavians are the spade
or scutiform outline of face, with rather broad (but
not prominent) cheekbones and a long sweeping
curve of the lower jaw: this is very notable in
Cumberland and in Lewis, for example. Some-
times the profile is classically straight and fine.
The inion (or occipital tuberosity) is apt to be
placed high ; and the upper part of the occipital
region in such cases has not the projection which
it has in the Hohberg type.

Subsequent to the Scandinavian colonizations
were the Norman conquest of England, the so-called

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 145

Saxon conquest of Scotland, the Anglo-Norman
conquests of Ireland and Wales, the infiltration of
the south and east of England with French settlers,
especially in the towns, the colonization of south
Pembrokeshire by the Flemings and west-country
English, that of Ulster by the English and Scotch,
the later French wave of the Huguenot refugees, in
the same area as the former one, and several less
important racial movements. The tendency of the
still more modern movements of population is
chiefly from the poorer to the richer districts: thus
the Welsh have gradually infiltrated the west central
and the Scotch the northern parts of England, the
Highlanders have crowded into Glasgow, and, above
all, the Irish into the towns of Great Britain. On
the whole, the proportion of the Teutonic element
and character in the Sassenach has been lessened, in
the south-east by the intrusion of the small dark
round-headed Kelt, and elsewhere by that of the
Kymry and the Gael.

I will now proceed to examine with some minute-
ness two or three specially interesting districts.
The ethnology of Pembrokeshire is perhaps more
complicated than that of any other part of the
principality. The best authority upon it is without
doubt the work of Mr. Edward Laws, The History
of Little England beyond Wales}

We have evidence there of the presence of
the usual neolithic stratum, and of that of the
brachykephalic bronze race, but very little of

1 London : George Bell & Sons, 1888.

146 The Anthropological History of Europe.

Roman occupation. Subsequently to the close of
the Roman period we find the land harassed by
the incursions of the Gwyddel Ffichti, the Gaels
from Ireland. Whether the people thus raided on
were themselves Gael in language does not appear
certain ; but if they were not, the occurrence
of Gaelic settlements from Ireland becomes all
the more clear. Kymric influence, however, gradu-
all prevailed in the matter of language, and must
have been accompanied by a considerable infusion
of Kymric blood, which was not, however, suffici-
ently powerful. Laws thinks, to bring about the
absolute enslavement of the Gaels and Silurians, as
it was in North Wales.

The next large element added was that of the
Scandinavians. We hear more of their raids than
of their settlements, but there were occasions when
they came as allies of the Welshmen against Saxon
or Irish enemies, or as allies of one Welsh chieftain
against another. Sometimes, no doubt, they settled
down as traders, or made their fortunes by marriage,
as Kol the Burner, of Iceland, was about to do (so
we learn in the Njalsaga), when his plans and his
life were cut short in a Welsh market-place by his
avenging countryman Kari Solmundson.

Mr. Laws reckons no less than 93 Norse place-
names in Pembrokeshire, though a few of these are
in my mind doubtful. He puts the question, with
respect to the occurrence of the terminal " ton " in
conjunction with Scandinavian personal names (as
Herbrandston, Lammaston) whether it is due to a
contemporaneous or a subsequent immigration

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 147

of Englishmen. I should think it was probably
contemporaneous. Pembrokeshire has been much
ravaged and perhaps depopulated by Irishmen and
by so-called Danes. Ostmen and Irishmen from
Wexford and Waterford may have been filtering in,
as their kindred seem to have done into Cumbria
from the Isle of Man, while in alliance with them
English exiles, fugitives before the Conqueror per-
haps, nay, possibly relics of the army of the sons of
Harold, may have settled down side by side.

The next intrusive elements were introduced by
the Norman conquest of Pembrokeshire, and in-
cluded Anglo-Normans, with a following no doubt
partly English, but very largely Flemish. The
extent of this Flemish colony has been much dis-
puted ; but there seems to be distinct evidence of
three separate settlements, in 1107, 1113, and 1155 or
thereabouts, and although numbers of the colonists
perished in desperate and repeated struggles with
the native chieftains, they are frequently mentioned
by the Welsh chroniclers in later times. Giraldus
Cambrensis speaks of them as " brave and doughty,
hating and hated by the Welsh, well versed in
commerce, clever woollen manufacturers, adventur-
ers, ever on the look-out for the main chance, and
willing in the pursuit of it to undergo fatigue
and danger by sea and land ; in a word, excellent
colonists." ^

All these settlements took place chiefly in the
southern and more open and fertile part of Pem-

*Laws, p. 115.

148 The Anthropological History of Europe.

brokeshire. In the north-east the hilly moorland
region of Cemmaes was conquered indeed by the
Normans, but not largely colonised; curiously
enough, their dominion there seems to have been
seldom disputed ; but matrimonial alliances soon
turned them into Welshmen, and after a few gener-
ations we find the lineal representative of the
Norman conquestor bearing the very Kymric name
of Jevan ap Owen.

But in the south the results of the continual and
savage contests were probably also rather unfavour-
able to the colonists. Not that, after the first
arrival of the Anglo-Flemings, peaceful admixture
was very great, but that in warfare of that kind the
more civilised people could suffer more heavily,
their castles not being sufficiently numerous and
strong to make up for the comparative want of
natural strongholds in their more open country.
Moreover, their territory was small and isolated,
that of the Celtic speaking enemy comparatively
large; and the effects of immigration are generally
more notable in the smaller of two adjoining
countries, for an obvious reason. After the estab-
lishment of peace landholders with Welsh names
begin to appear in the south of the country, and no
doubt their presence implies that of dependents of
their own race or nation. Meanwhile, the colonists,
after the partial conquest of Ireland which they
accomplished under Strongbow in the latter part of
the twelfth century, were diminished by the swarms
which they sent off to that country. There the
people of Forth and Bargy, the two southernmost

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 149

baronies of the shire of Wexford, who speak a
curious old-English dialect, are doubtless in great
part descended from those of " Little England
beyond Wales" — a swarm from a young hive, a
colony in the second degree. The line of division
between the Saxon and the Keltic halves of Pem-
brokeshire is still pretty sharply drawn, and has not
varied far for centuries, though it is now beginning
to recede. It runs, or did run not many years ago,
from a point between Roch and Brawdy on the
north-east side of St. Bride's Bay, in a curve convex
to the north, to the most projecting point of the
Caermarthenshire border, passing north of St. Bos-
wells and Bletherston. South-east of this projection,
and separated by it, three parishes in Narberth
Hundred, Llandewi, Llanvalteg and Llampeter
Velfry, are also Keltic.

Mr. Laws instituted a census of the colours of
school children's hair and eyes, and was successful
in securing the co-operation of fifty-two school-
masters, well distributed over the whole country.
The number of children examined was 4,151, of
whom 1,350 were in Welsh-speaking schools: the
method employed was my own, the children being
divided into fifteen sets, the eyes being noted as
light, neutral or dark, and the hair as red, fair,
brown or neutral, dark or black.

This is the method which has been adopted by
Topinard in his great census of the departments of
France, but with the further improvement of certain
patterns or standards indicating the shades which
are to be characterised as neutral or medium in eyes.

150 The Anthropological History of Europe.

and brown, chestnut (chatain), or medium in hair.
This plan of Topinard's no doubt mitigates the
liability to eccentricities of the observer which is
the great and not wholly avoidable fault of the
procedure, and which I denote briefly as the personal
equation of the observer. Another fault is this:
though the colour of the eye does not change much
with advancing years during childhood, the colour
of the hair usually changes considerably. Thus red
and yellow may become brown, and red sometimes
quite a dark brown, dark brown shades may become
blackish, and many browns take on a rather darker
shade. It follows that statistics derived from child-
ren cannot be usefully compared with those from
adults, nor even those from infant schools with
those from advanced classes. In the present case,
however, the average age of the children probably
did not vary much in the several schools.

The results of the enquiry were not exactly what
I had expected. Mr. Laws and I had both looked
for figures indicating a comparatively large excess
of dark hair in the northern half of the country.
An excess indeed there was, but one of only 6 per
cent, the proportion of dark hair being in the
northern or Welsh half 327 per cent., in the southern
or English one 26'6 per cent. The excess of black
hair among the Welsh is indeed large, nearly double,
but there is also a moderate excess of red and fair
hair, with a great deficiency of medium shades, and
a moderate one in dark eyes. As all these numerical
relations more resemble the Irish than those of the
Silurian, or south-eastern Welshmen, I am inclined

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 151

to diagnose the presence in North Pembrokeshire of
a very large Gaelic element; ^d it is noteworthy
that Mr. Laws, like Bishop Basil Jones, had arrived
at the same conclusion from totally different
grounds, historical or philological.

When we examine the figures for the six hundreds
separately, some interesting details come out.
Castlemartin, which includes the peninsula to the
south of Milford Haven, though entirely English in
speech, comes out with a small proportion of light
hair. This is not really strange, however : the west
country English, the near kinsmen of these colonists,
are mainly of British origin, and dark-haired. The
local names here are not so indicative of Scandi-
navian or Flemish settlement as those in the Hundred
of Roos, around Haverford-west. Accordingly Roos
comes out with a large proportion of light and
medium brown hair, but little dark, and very little
black: the proportion of dark eyes is also rather
small. With Roos we may advantageously compare
Cemmaes (pronounced Kemmes), which occupies
the north-eastern part of the county, and owing to
its poor soil and rough elevated surface has, as
before noted, been little disturbed by colonization.
Cemmaes has 154 more of dark brown hair, in 100
of all colours, than Roos ; it has four times as much
of black hair, three less of fair, and 16 less of medium
brown shades. The combinations of dark brown or
black hair with blue, light grey or dark grey eyes
are remarkably prevalent in all Gaelic countries,
belonging perhaps to the ancient race of Cro-
Magnon, but certainly to a stock long ago thoroughly

152 The Anthropological History of Europe.

incorporated with the Gaels. Of these combinations
we have 27'4 per cent, in Cemmaes, and only 97 in
Roos, or about one-third ; and of those including
black hair 29 per 1000 in Cemmaes, and only 2 per
1000 in Roos.

Thus, on minute analysis, the present distribution
of colour, though not very striking at first sight, is
full of meaning : it accords well with the probable
history, and gives us additional assurance of the
potency of the Norse and Flemish, and of the Ibero-
Gaelic or Irish element in Pembrokeshire, which
local names and history suggest.

In the Isle of Man the problems of anthropology
may be said to be reduced to very simple forms.
We know, in fact, nothing, or hardly anything, of
the prehistoric anthropology of the island ; but a
great deal of the later facts bearing on its race-
history. The earliest population of which we are
aware was evidently Gaelic in speech and in myth-
ology, and with the exception of a doubtful and in
any case transitory conquest by the Northumbrian
Angles, it has scarcely ever been interfered with,
except by being overlaid by successive strata of
Norsemen, either pure, or more or less mixed,
already, with Irish and Hebridean Gaels. The pres-
sence of certain surnames, as Mr. A. W. Moore has
shewn, indicates that there was a considerable
immigration from Ireland in the fourteenth cen-
tury, but it was rather Anglo-Irish or Ostman-Irish
than purely Gaelic, and did not, probably, alter the
race-proportions materially.

I think it is not unlikely that at one time the

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 153

Norse element preponderated, but that it fell back
into a minority owing to its being drained away
into the Norse colonies in Cumberland, Westmore-
land and Dumfriesshire. Vigfusson and Savage, in
their readings of the Manx Runic inscriptions,
whose supposed date is somewhere about a.d. 1200,
find 18 Norse names of men and 5 of women, 14
Gaelic of men and 3 of women, — altogether 23 Norse
to 17 Gaelic, 57 per cent, to 42 ; but the persons
commemorated or mentioned were doubtless of the
wealthier class. As Vigfusson and Savage say, " The
speech, we believe, was all along bilingual. The
masters would speak Norse : the law and all public
transactions on the Thingwall and elsewhere would
be in Norse; but the household servants would
speak Gaelic — just as we find English and Gaelic
within the same family in lona and the Hebrides at
the present day. At the separation from Norway
in the thirteenth century, the root was cut off from
under the Norse tongue, and the Gaelic obtained ;
just as under our own eyes the English is now
supplanting the Manx Gaelic."

The legal arrangements retained much of their
Norse character, but the language, as has been just
said, remained Gaelic with a little admixture of
Norwegian words, and the place-names were in
great majority Gaelic; while the surnames were
mostly pure Gaelic, and the remainder Norse Gaelic-
ized ; thus Kewley for Macaulay or Olafson, Corlett
for MacThorliod, Qualtrough, as I suppose, for
MacWalter or Waterson, Corkhill for MacCorkill,
for MacThorketil or Thorkelson.

154 The Anthropological History of Europe.

The only Manx crania of any pretensions to
antiquity which I could see or hear of, were two in
the possession of Dr. Clague of Castletown ; they
had been found in excavating foundations at
Scarlett, and were probably mediaeval. They both
showed something of the Gaelic type ; their indices
of breadth were respectively 756 and 80*6.

One would expect, judging from these data, and
from the length of the period which has elapsed
since any new element of consequence has been
added to the population, to find in the modern
Manx folk a tolerably homogeneous type, com-
pounded from a Scandinavian and from (what I
call) the Gaelic type, though leaning perhaps rather
more towards the latter, and occasionally varying
into pretty pure specimens of one or other of its
elements. Now the Manx population answer pretty
exactly to this expectation ; they are just what they
ought to be, anthropologically. There is a good
deal of likeness between them and the Cumberland
folk, on the one side, and between them and the
people of Lewis and Harris on the other. They are
tall and stalwart, with oblong heads yielding an
index of breadth of 77'6; in that and in other
principal measurements their heads take a place
between those of Norwegians and those of Scottish
and Irish Gael, inclining however rather more
towards the latter. The greatest difference from
the former comes out in the greater length of the
naso-inial arc, which is connected with a greater
prominence of brows and of occiput, as well as with
an apparently lower position of the inion. The

Spain, Italy, and the British Isles. 155

breadth and flatness of the cheekbones, flatness
rather than prominence, is decidedly Norwegian
rather than Gaelic. The face is usually long, and
either scutiform or oval ; the former is the outline
most prevalent among the Scandinavians, the latter
among the Scottish Highlanders and Western Irish.
The nose is almost always of good length ; in out-
line it is oftener straight, less often sinuous than
among the Highlanders and Irish. The influence
of the Norwegian cross is shewn also in the colour
of the hair. Red hair is not frequent nor very
bright ; fair and light brown hair are very common ;
and the index of nigrescence is decidedly lower
than in most parts of the Highlands or of Ireland.
The distribution and combinations of colour have
more resemblance to those found in some other
Scandio-Gaelic districts than to most others in my
schedules; such districts are Wexford, Waterford^
some of the islands of the coast of Argyle, and
perhaps the Lewis. But the exact proportions of
hair-colour, together with the great frequency of
neutral eyes, are not produced anywhere else. Blue
eyes are less common, I think, than grey; and dark
shades of grey, varying towards green and brown,
are frequent. What are called "black" eyes are
rare. The hair is pretty copious, straight or wavy,
seldom strongly curled or very brightly coloured.
I measured thirty-one heads, all of which belonged
to people of long local descent. If called upon to
classify them, I should say that out of the thirty-
one, one was distinctly Turanian in type, one be-
longed to the British bronze race, one was pretty

156 The Anthropological History of Europe.

purely Iberian, and one anomalous ; that one was
pretty purely Teutonic (the Grave-row type of Ecker,
the Hohberg, or between the Hohberg and the
Belair, of His and Rutimeyer, the Germanic of Von
Holder), and that three more were very nearly so,
while at least four presented decided Gaelic types ;
and that the remaining nineteen were what I have
called Scandio-gaelic. Thus amalgamation of the
two principal constituent elements would seem to
have gone so far that nearly two-thirds of the popu-
lation, if I may judge by my specimens, belong to a
newly compounded Manx type, while the remainder
are to be considered as reversions, or as belonging
to the original elements, which have hitherto
resisted amalgamation. The Turanian and two of
Gaels belonged to the secluded southern hamlet of
Craignish, while three of the Teutons or Norsemen
were born in the north of the island. I have little
doubt that Craignish was a habitation of thralls,
and my Turanian may be the descendant of a
captive, brought from possibly, Lapland or the
White Sea.

Mr. A. W. Moore, whose loss the island has had
to deplore, produced among other papers one
grounded on my figures and on the local nomen-
clature, in which he demonstrated that small as is
the island the race type has not become homo-
geneous everywhere, but that the Scandinavian
element is still more potent in the neighbourhood
of the easiest landing-places, and less so in the
rougher or more remote parishes, the " back blocks,"
as an American might call them.

LECTURE VI.

SCOTLAND,
WITH GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

Considerations of special districts, such as Berwickshire, an Anglian,
and Ballachiilish, a Gaelic locality — Difficult and doubtful
points in British ethnology — Possible effects of urban life —
Growth and decline of races and types, and their probable
future.

I.

TN considering the mediaeval history of Scotland,
^ one meets with mysteries ethnological as well
as political. I had the advantage of coming after
Professor Rhys in this Chair, and I have learned
much from him ; but nevertheless, it remains a
mystery to me how the Pictish language came to
disappear. That it was a Keltic dialect, but with
Iberian elements, I entertain little doubt ; that the
language of the majority often gives place to that of
the minority, when the latter has some decided
advantage, religious, social, or political, over the
former, I am well aware ; but here it is apparently a
question of two races of barbarians on something
like the same level, so far as we can see. In fact
one would be inclined to say that the Brythonic
language of Strathclyde ought to have had the best
chance of the three, on the score of civilization. I

158 The Anthropological History of Europe.

can only suppose that the true Scots were really,
what some of the early Irish writings and traditions
portray them, a very highly gifted race, psychically
as well as physically, and that this superiority told
in their favour in the linguistic struggle, in spite of
the difficulties interposed by a rugged and thinly
peopled country, vexed by continual wars and intes-
tine dissensions.

It is the habit of a decaying language to hide
itself, as it were, in nooks and corners, while the
advancing tide of the victorious tongue sweeps
round it ; or to continue to exist among the
commonality, while the upper and more energetic
classes, those who stir and push and make history,
show no sign of its existence. Thus Chaucer's
Skipper of Dartmouth speaks English like the rest
of his company; one would never imagine from
any hint given by Chaucer, that Cornish was spoken
in South Devon for two centuries afterwards.

Still, I was surprised when Dr. Christison pointed
out to me the passage in Burt's Letters, in which he
says that he had been informed that, before the
Union, Irish {i.e., Gaelic) had been the language of
Fife ; and that after the Union it became one con-
dition of the indenture, when a youth from Fife
was to be bound on the Edinburgh side of the
water, that the apprentice should be taught "the
English tongue." But Jamieson, in a note to the
fifth edition of Burt, says there is no reason to
suppose that in Fife any Keltic dialect had been
used, during the last five centuries, that would have
been intelligible to an Irishman. That Gaelic

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 159

lingered long behind the Ochills, in Strathallan, I
could well believe: the population there is physi-
cally much more Gaelic ; and in the thirteenth
century, since which there have been no great
changes of population, the personal names in a
perambulation of Wester Fedale, near Auchterarder,
were almost all Gaelic. But with regard to Fife, I
am disposed to think Burt was hoaxed, or that he
misunderstood his informants.

The proof, could it be had, that Gaelic had
lingered long in a particular locality would by no
means show that the proportion of Gaelic blood
there is particularly large. I have said that the
Strathallan people were largely pre- Saxon. They
are very generally dark haired, and their features
correspond to their colour: yet their forefathers
have spoken English for generations, though with a
Gaelic accent. The people of Keith and Huntly
speak English; but dark colours prevail among
them, which is not the case in the lower ground of
Moray on the one side, or of Aberdeenshire on the
other; and I believe them to be mainly of Pictish
extraction. The people of the Ness, in the north of
the Long Island, have spoken Gaelic from time
immemorial; but those who have seen them (I
regret that I have not) with one consent declare
them to be pure Norsemen ; and I can testify that
even south of them, at Stornoway, the strength of
the Scandinavian types is remarkable. Whether
Norse was ever the language of the commonality in
the Hebrides is very doubtful. Captain Thomas
thought it was. Quoting Vigfusson, he tells us that

160 The A nthropological History of Europe.

the poems of Orm of Barra formed part of the
entertainment at a banquet in Iceland, 1120. The
most I should infer would be that the islanders
were bilingual in the same way in which England
was bilingual in the twelfth century, or in which
Wales and the Highlands are bilingual to-day, while
we read and admire the poems of the Welshman
William Morris.

Some of those migrations which have most effect
on physical type do not necessarily affect the
language: this may be the case where they are
gradual and long persistent, so that the speakers of
the original tongue are able to assimilate successive
generations of new-comers.

In attempting to analyse anthropologically the
population of Scotland, one is met with a difficulty
common to several countries in Western Europe —
England, Ireland, Spain, Portugal, Sardinia, Sicily.
Almost all the elements are long-headed, and there-
fore our readiest test, except that of colour, almost
fails us. It is the one of which I have made most
use in these lectures, as being the most accessible,
and as having been so much developed as to yield
an enormous mass of data; but, as will have been
gathered, I think its special importance has been a
little exaggerated. A brachykephalic — short-head-
ed — element no doubt entered Scotland during the
period of bronze; and, as I have already stated, I
think it probable that a Mongoloid race may have
been amongst the earliest occupants of the country;
but neither of them is largely represented nowadays,
at least not in the material I have collected. The

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 161

former of these should be found especially in the
Brythonic, the latter in the Pictish districts. Med-
iaeval skulls are generally neglected, to the detriment
of ethnological history. But Sir Daniel Wilson
measured 12, mostly from Edinburgh, and found a
breadth-index of 786, which is rather high for these
islands. The number is too small to allow for any
confident deduction, but the width is greater, and
most of the other measurements less, than in the
series of what he calls Keltic (let us read Gaelic)
skulls, with which he compares them. Of these
latter, by the way, several are from lona,^ and it
may be worth while to note again how often finely
developed skulls are discovered in the graveyards
of old monasteries, and how likely seems Galton's
conjecture, that progress was arrested in the Middle
Ages, because the celibacy of the clergy brought
about the extinction of the best strains of blood.

There are not so many modern Scottish crania
in collections as one could wish. Those that were
available were, I imagine, almost all made use of by
Principal Sir William Turner in his most valuable
Contribution to the Craniology of the People of
Scotland, which is likely to remain the standard
work on the subject. It includes descriptions of
176, for the most part, tolerably perfect crania, most
of which may be said to be modern, though some
are mediaeval. The most interesting point brought
out by Sir William is the frequent occurrence
of brachykephaly among the upper or educated

^ Average index of 5, 76*8.

162 The Anthropological History of Europe.

classes, to which most of his material probably
belonged. This applies especially to Fife, to East
Lothian, and to other parts of the Eastern Low-
lands, but not to the West of Scotland. Thus :—

Locality.

Number.

Cranial Index.

N. E. Lowlands, ...

6

81-8

E. Lothian,

15

797

Fife,

16

79.25

Midlothian,

59

77-3

Renfrewshire, ...

21

757

Highlands and Isles,

13

741

But it may serve our purpose to divide the Mid-
lothian skulls into two categories, 32 from the
towns of Edinburgh and Leith would yield a
breadth-index of 78'4, while 14 from a coast village
(not further described) would give 761, 13 from
rural districts, 751, and the whole 27 extraurban
skulls, 75*6, not much beyond the limit of pure
dolichokephaly.

The elaborate investigation of the asylum popu-
lation of Scotland, which we owe to Mr. Tocher,
may help us in the appreciation of these facts,
though of course there may be a little hazard in
extending an argument or a conclusion from the
insane to the sane. Among the particulars obtained
by Mr. Tocher was the kephalic index for all the
individuals observed, and of course the mean there-
of for each district asylum. He found an index of
78, or higher, in the whole north and north-east
beyond the Tay and the Grampians, one below 77
in Argyll, and intermediate ones in the remainder
of Scotland, including Fife and the Lothians.

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 163

I have extracted from Mr. Tocher's figures (cor-
rected as usual for the skulP) the proportions of
true brachykephali (80 or more), in several of the
asylums. They run as follows: —

Argyll, ...

... 1-6

Roxburgh,

. 3-6

Fife, ...

... 4-5

Ayr,

. 4-8

E. Lothian,

... 4-9

Edinburgh

. 51

Paisley,

.. 5-35

Dumfries,

. 5-9

Midlothian,

.. 6-5

Inverness,

. 72

Aberdeen,

.. 711

Moray, ...

. 11-2

Banff, ...

.. 12-

Montrose, &c.,

157

and seem to exhibit his results in a very striking
form, and to accord generally with Sir William
Turner — but not in the details relating to Fife and
East Lothian, nor to the distinction between Edin-
burgh and its rural surroundings.

Sir William attributes most of the material in
question to the upper or educated classes, and
though chiefly modern, it is contemporary.

Was there perchance anything in the environ-
ment, say in the eighteenth century or thereabout,
to affect the forms ? It is not likely. Deformations
may be and are practised by nurses and mid wives
which escape the notice of the scientific observer;
thus, in mid-Germany, the cradleboard is responsible
for much of the brachykephaly. But there is no

^That is, I have subtracted 2 degrees in every case. In my own
opinion, however, this is too much in the case of brachykephali ; so
that I may have understated the proportion of short-heads. Mr.
Tocher's figures seem to confirm Sir WiUiam Turner's remark that in
Scotland the short have generally smaller capacities than the long-
heads.

164 The Anthropological History of Europe.

trace of anything of that sort in the beautifully
figured crania in Sir William Turner's memoir.
There are other factors in the question which are
just conceivable, but that is all.

I have a few observations of my own, or under-
taken at my instigation by the late Mr. Hector
Maclean, which do not yield much support to the
idea that Scottish heads are growing wider. I will
give them as corrected for comparison with the dry
skull, as mentioned in the note on the preceding
page.

88 Isla men, by Hector Maclean, - 77'3

28 Colonsay, do. do., - 75'2

18 Eyemouth and Burnmouth, J. B., 74'7

12 Berwickshire, inland, J. B., - - 75'9

55 Highlanders, various, J. B., - - 74'2

40 Educated Scotchmen, J. B., - - 75*3

20 Other do. do., J. B., - - 75*5
22 Scotchmen of superior intellectual

distinction, .... 75'44

50 Others, mostly upper class, - - 75'67

The relative breadth, it will be observed, is small,
smaller than in almost any part of the continent of
Europe. On the other hand, the absolute length is
great, greater indeed than I have found anywhere
else, except in Hanover and East Friesland, and it is
this which makes the breadth appear small: the
circumference again is large in all, though inferior
to that of the Hanoverians. There are certain
differences between the four classes of Scotchmen :
thus the Berwickshire peasants seem to have slightly

Scotland^ with General Conclusions. 165

smaller heads than the fishermen (the contrary is
said to be the case further north on the east coast) :
the Berwickshire fishermen have slightly less pro-
minent brows, their heads are a trifle more lofty,
the frontal region rather more developed, and the
whole base of the brain rather broader than in the
Highlanders. The educated Scotchmen, who were
nowise selected, except for hereditary or personal
intellectual distinction, and who came from all
parts of the country, including the Highlands, agreed
more with the Berwickshire fishermen in their pro-
portions, but their foreheads are generally broader
and their heads loftier.

In the 22 of intellectual distinction these differ-
ences were generally more marked, and the average
size of the heads was distinctly greater; but it will
be observed that the index of breadth is much the
same.

Here I must break off for a while to speak of the
extensive and laborious contributions to our know-
ledge of human coloration in Scotland which we
owe to Messrs. John Gray and Tocher, and which
they have made since these lectures were delivered.
They cannot, unfortunately, be very profitably
compared with my own contribution to Scottish
ethnology, as they were made fifty years later,
during which period it is quite possible that even
changes of type may have resulted from the en-
bonization of the population and from other social
changes. Moreover my work was concerned with
adults and with certain localities selected indeed
but somewhat casually so, while theirs had to do

166 The Anthropological History of Europe.

with children, extended to the whole of Scotland,
with small exceptions, and was carried on systemati-
cally and officially. One point of superiority
however remains to me : all my observations were
made with my own eyes, so that the troublesome
personal equation was eliminated, and I suspect
that many of the Scottish schoolmasters were dis-
posed to see a good deal of dark hair, as it is apt to
be the case among a blond people.

On the whole Messrs. Gray and Tocher's facts
corroborate my conjectures, though not always in
particular localities. They show a fair race-type on
the Borders, a dark-haired and light-eyed one in
the Gaelic-speaking west and north-west, and among
the Picts of Galloway, and a comparative absence
of dark and black hair among the eastern Low-
landers, within reach of colonization from the
continental Teutons. Mr. Gray is disposed to think
the characteristics of these last may represent to a
notable extent those of the Picts. Some peculiarities
in dialect, such as the use of F for WH, favour this
view ; but to me the higher kephalic index and the
general aspect of the people, as well as the prevailing
surnames, seem to indicate the peaceful infiltration
of Teutonic settlers from the Continent, with just a
sufficient leaven of Anglo-Saxons to make their
language predominant. Galloway was not always
under Pictish rule during the dark ages: there was
a notable period of Anglian domination ; but the
Picts survived there eo nomine, longer than any-
where else, being notoriously conspicuous at the
battle of the Standard ; and what little evidence we

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 167

can get from Sir William Turner ^ or elsewhere
leads one to think that a low kephalic index prevails
among their descendants.

To return ; in colour, which I consider very
important as a race-test, the difference between
Eyemouth and Ballachulish is very great, almost as
great, perhaps, as between any two districts in the
country. The proportions of light and of dark eyes
are not very different, it is true; but the neutral
eyes are generally light hazel or hazel-grey in Eye-
mouth, but dark grey is Ballachulish. Black hair is
quite rare at Eyemouth, and among the Berwick-
shire peasants of pure breed it hardly ever occurs ;
but at Ballachulish it is in the proportion of 10 per
cent., and often occurs with blue or dark grey eyes.
Altogether the hair is more coloured there, more
pigmented; thus the blond hair (which is not
uncommon at Ballachulish, notwithstanding the
pronounced tendency to blackness), is more apt to
be yellow, while in Berwickshire it often tends to a
flaxen hue, which means deficiency in colouring
matter. How far this has to do with differences in
the atmospheric moisture, or how far it is due to
peculiarities fixed in the race, may be questioned :
on the whole it seems probable that red and yellow
pigment were originally developed copiously in a
moist atmosphere, but that the tendency to their
production is now completely fixed.

The Berwickshire people are mainly Anglian by
race : it is probable that the British inhabitants were

^ He figures a distinctly Gaelic type of skull.

168 The Anthropological History of Europe.

pretty completely expelled at the time of the
Anglian conquest. Some Danish and Norse blood
was introduced under Malcolm Ceanmohr — later
changes have not been great, though of course there
has been a slow infiltration of the general Scottish
population. I will give you an example of such
immigration from a tombstone in Foulden church-
yard, on which I have more than once enacted " Old
Mortality." " Here lieth ane honourable man,
George Ramsay in Foulden Bastel. . . .

" Fife fostering peace me bred
From thence the Merse me called.
The Merse to Mars his lawys led.
To bide his battles bauld.
Wearied with toil, and sore opprest.
Death gave to Mars the foil.
And now I have more quiet rest
Than in my native soil.
Fife, Forth, Mars, Mort, these fatal four
All hale my life hath driven o'er."

There is every agency present in Berwickshire
which might be expected to develop or maintain a
fine type of man. The original stock was tall,
handsome, and vigorous; subsequent crosses have
been made by energetic immigrants ; natural selec-
tion may have assisted during centuries of border
warfare ; there are no manufactories in the district,
or hardly any ; finally, the soil is rich and fertile, if
that has anything to do with it; and a somewhat
harsh and cold climate probably weeds out weakly
people. Accordingly the men of the Merse are
among the finest in Britain. Probably the average
stature is about 5 feet 9 inches (1752 millimeters);

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 169

the fishermen are not so tall as the peasantry, but
25 of the latter, of pure local descent, who were
measured and weighed by Dr. Charles Stewart of
Chirnside, yielded the remarkable average of 5 feet
lOi inches in stature, and 199 pounds in weight.^
Here the weight exceeds, though the stature falls
short of, the huge proportions of the men of Balma-
clellan in Upper Galloway, who as yet, I believe,
hold the record as to stature among all tested
communities in Europe. The majority of the Merse
men have straight profiles, long heads and faces,
prominent occiputs, cheekbones and brows not
conspicuous, noses nearly straight, fair complexion,
blue or grey eyes, and lightish brown hair.

Of the Ballachulish people it would be more
difficult to give a good description. They are much
less homogeneous in form and colour. Though
there has been little immigration for the last few
centuries, except of Highlanders, there are various
traditions of old dealings with the Norwegians.
The Macdonalds of Glencoe had been islesmen, and
a sept called Henderson are said to have preceded
them. On the whole, however, the probable ele-
ments of importance are Iberian (Pictish.?) and
Scotic (shall we say Keltiberian or Galato-Iberian ?):
there is little sign of more primitive races. A long-
headed dark race has been crossed by a long-headed
fair one, and the latter has been a little reinforced
by the Norsemen ; a new type has been established,
but imperfectly, and reversions are frequent. The
moral character, the speech and manners, more than

^ 86 millimeters and about 84 kilogrammes, naked weight.

12

170 The Anthropological History of Europe.

the complexion, or the characteristic forms of the
level brows and of the lower jaw, make me inclined
to think that the Iberian preponderates over the
Gael and the Goth.

For physical descriptions of the Highlander I
must refer to the papers Sir Arthur Mitchell,
Captain Thomas, and Mr. Hector Maclean of Bally-
grant. All had paid much attention to the subject,
and their conclusions do not differ much. All agree
as to the importance of the Iberian, or as some call
it, Spanish element. As to a Finnish one they are
less clear, but all acknowledge it to some extent. I
believe it to be rather considerable in Scotland ; it
may possibly have been brought in by the Nor-
wegians, and this is quite likely as regards the dark,
flat-faced, almond-eyed folk who occur in Shetland
and about Barvas in the Lewis ; but its general dis-
tribution in Scotland, and its frequent occurrence
in Wales, make me think it of far older date in
Britain than the Norse invasions.

The Brythonic element is not, I think, at all
strong or conspicuous in the Western Highlands,
though it may be in Perthshire. The parts of Scot-
land in which one would look for it with most
confidence are those where the Strathclyde- Welsh-
men longest retained their power, the districts
adjoining the long range of hills and moorlands
that runs from the heads of the Clyde and the
Annan along the west of Lanarkshire into Renfrew-
shire. These would include Upper Nithsdale, Upper
Galloway, Kyle, perhaps also Cunningham and
Renfrewshire; but of these last I have no personal

Scotland, with General Conclusions. Ill

knowledge. What seems most notable in the people
thereabout, are the very tall stature and the pre-
valence on the whole of dark hair. The schedule
from the parish of Balmaclellan, to which I referred
just now, which was published in my work on
Stature and Bulk, and which I owed to Sir Arthur
Mitchell and the Reverend George Murray, ex-
hibited both these characteristics in a high degree.^
I regret that I cannot say anything about the head-
form, which, if known, might enable one to speak
more confidently of their racial origin. But I
incline to think there is in them a large element of
the same kind that we usually find in round barrows
and with bronze objects — the race that was once
dominant over the greater part of the British Isles,
and whose tall stature and bony angular features
are here reproduced. I do not know how long the
Brythonic language lingered hereabout, but there is
a little testimony to its long continuance which may
never have struck you, though it occurs in a well-
known Scotch ballad.

" An' they hae had him to the wan water,
For a' men call it Clyde."

Why did they call it Clyde ? Clyde in Welsh, is
pale grey. Lloyd, the personal name so common in
Wales, means "grey." Evidently the man who
composed that pathetic ballad knew the Kymric
tongue, or how should he have known that Clyde
meant the " wan " water, the pale grey water.

' The average stature of the 75 men measured was 5 feet 10"4-6 inches,
or 1790 millimeters ; but 14 who had black hair attained an average of
1812 millimeters.

172 The Anthropological History of Europe.

II.

We have now traced down the history of Europe,
so far as it can be done within a very limited space,
from the earliest known vestiges of man down to
the present day; and in all its principal divisions.
We have seen that while the craniological record of
prehistoric ages is very insufficient, and for large
portions of Europe non-existent, such evidence as
we yet possess goes to shew that the dolichokephalic
was in the earliest ages the prevailing, and perhaps
the only type of man ; but that there were possibly
two varieties of it. Its extreme forms seem to have
been connected with early ossification of the sutures.

That brachykephali do, however, appear in the
quaternary period, sometimes accompanying long-
heads, sometimes separately. Where they occur
conjunctively they do not give one the impression
of being mere aberrations or of pathological origin,
as from rickets or hydrokephalus : and in the latter
part of the quaternary period they may be provision-
ally accepted as at least tribal types.

In the neolithic period we find them constituting
in France an important and aggressive race: they
mix with and overpower the long-headed type:
they appear in the Swiss pile-villages and about the
Alps, and may be conjectured to have existed in mass
much further east ; but of this there is little or no
positive evidence until later, in the early iron age,
though in the age of bronze they conquered most part
of the British Isles ; and though there is some reason
to think that at a very early period a broad-headed

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 173

race was represented in Scandinavia. As the north
becomes peopled, the vigorous race which fills it
sends off swarms to the south and south-east ; and
this progress continues until it is temporarily
arrested by the consolidation of the Roman empire.
After the Roman dominion has passed away, we
find that the northern longheads push southwards
at the expense of the brachykephals, whom, how-
ever, they rather overlie than press backwards.
Soon, however, the opposite movement begins anew,
and is supported to some extent by the invasions of
the Turanian type from Asia, but chiefly by the
great spread of the Slavonic peoples, at the expense
of the long-headed Germans and of the Ugrian
tribes, who were at most of mixed type. The
Illyrian race has meanwhile been invading the area
of the Mediterranean longheads, and the Kelts may
have done the same to a less extent.

The next result is that we have now three cranio-
metrical, if not racial, areas in Europe, without
counting the Lapps and Finns as a second brachy-
kephalic mass, in which case we shall have four
such areas. Roughly speaking, the broadheads
occupy most of the mountain regions of Europe,
with the adjacent territories, to wit, the central hills
of Bretagne, the Cevennes, the Vosges, the Ardennes,
the Jura, both Swiss and German, the Alps in their
whole extent, the Pindus, and probably the whole
Carpathian system with its western prolongations :
also the plains of Poland and Southern and Central
Russia, where the boundary to the north becomes
blurred and indistinct.

174 The Anthropological History of Europe.

The northern or blond long-heads occupy the
regions north of those already mentioned, except
the area of the Lapps, the Quaens, and the Karelian
and Tavastian Finns, who are all brachykephalic,
the first remarkably so. The Tavastians at least,
though broad-headed, are a blond people. There
is a brachykephalic spot on the south-west coast of
Norway, which may be primitive, and another on
the isles of the Scheldt and Meuse. The Southern
or Mediterranean longheads, including the Pyr-
enees and all to the south of them, part of Western
France, the coast of Liguria, apparently, Corsica,
Sardinia, Sicily and Southern Italy. To these may
be added parts of Greece and of the Greek islands,
and of Bulgaria ; but the connection of blood is
doubtful in the former case, and non-existent in the
second, the dolichokephalic elements in Bulgaria
being Ugrian, or possibly in part Thracian.

Now has this great extension of the brachyke-
phalic area been wholly due to conquest or col-
onization ? or to the different moral qualities or
greater fertility or hardihood of the breed? or to
any influences tending to actually change the type,
which might be intrinsic (elevating or civilizing) or
extrinsic, such as the hypothetical influence of
mountain habitation might be, according to Ranke.'*
There is a collateral problem involved with this,
that of the supposed increasing prevalence of dark
hair in Europe, particularly in areas formerly occu-
pied by blonds, and the causes of it, if the supposition
be correct. For there is no doubt that on the whole,
in the northern and central latitudes of Europe, the

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 175

longhead and the blond coloration, the broadhead
and brunette coloration, go together. This is the
rule, but exceptions are very numerous and exten-
sive : thus in the island of Islay and in the west of
England, Mr. Maclean and I have found the rule to
be reversed.^

With respect to stature, the rule is still more
liable to exception. The blond dolichoid race, as a
race, is much taller than the Slavokeltic one; and
the latter is thicker of make and heavier in pro-
portion, but that is almost all that can be said with
confidence. The bronze race of brachykephals in
England was remarkably tall, and the tallest men in
Britain are found in a comparatively dark-haired
area.

To return to the problems stated. There is much
more evidence which could be brought to bear on
them than I have been able to put before you in
these lectures. I think I just mentioned the in-
crease of size in the heads of Parisians, a change
not accompanied apparently by any increase in
maximum breadth, but depending purely on an
enlargement of the frontal lobe. Even this may be
due simply to a gradual process of selection; the
cleverer people in all ranks, that is, those with
frontal lobes developed beyond the average, having
been attracted to the centre of progress and the
goal of ambition, in larger number than their
fellows.

^ It is fair to note that in Western Britain we have to deal with
remains of the southern, or dark, as well as of the northern or fair
dolichokephals.

176 The Anthropological History of Europe.

The extraordinary change which has apparently
taken place in southern Germany, and of which I
gave some details when speaking of that country,
admits of several partial explanations, no one of
which, however, is per se satisfactory. Thus the
general exclusion of the serfs from the burying-
grounds of their masters, in the days of grave-row
interment, must be allowed ; but it is strange that
it would seem to have continued even after the
introduction and prevalence of Christianity.

Von Holder lays great stress on the wars of the
old Swabians and Bavarians with the Slavs, Avars
and Magyars, to the east of them, and on the vast
numbers of prisoners taken at these wars, whom he
believes to have settled on the lands of their captors.
Moreover, while land was more abundant than
hands to till it, and while agriculture was, more or
less, despised as an occupation by warriors, fugitive
or converted foreigners were placed by nobles and
churchmen on their domains. There is clear evi-
dence of this having taken place in Thuringia- It
would be strange, perhaps, if the descendants of the
captive serfs should be found to have outstripped
those of the captors and now to outnumber them.
But it would be by no means impossible. The
negro population constitutes the majority in most
parts of the West Indies, and bids fair to crowd out
the other races there ; yet it was introduced in the
same way; it is the progeny of foreign captives
brought in to till the soil for a dominant race or
caste.

With regard to colour, the question of its change-

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 177

ability is much increased in difficulty by the fact
that the blond complexion has throughout all
historical time, and in most parts of Europe, been
the one most admired, while the red, the brown,
and the black, though they have all had their local
seasons of favour or fashion, have on the whole
been the less thought of and less spoken of, especially
by the poets, from Homer downwards. The
inferences to be drawn from the mention of a par-
ticular complexion are not always clear. If it were
universal, it would probably never be mentioned.
Even if very common, it would probably not be
extolled, one would think; yet the Chinese call
themselves " the black-haired nation," and the Brah-
mins would marry only black-haired women, when
other colours were rare ; and Souvestre says, reddish
hair is disliked among the Bretons. But the rule is,
perhaps, that the uncommon is prized as well as
conspicuous.

" Beautiful exceedingly.
Like a ladye from a far countrie/'

says Coleridge of Christobel.

Good observers have said that all the Oriental
Jews are red-haired,^ whereas it is only a few of
them who are so. Some will tell you that most
Scotch people are red-haired. The Chinese say we
Britons are all so. The French in general think the
French of the north are blond ; we, being ourselves
very largely fair, think the northern French dark.

^ Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, for example.

178 The Anthropological History of Europe.

Instances of this kind might be multiplied. Again,
a favoured colour is imitated. Perhaps the Romans,
when describing their northern neighbours, ought
more often to have said " rutilatae," " raddled,"
instead of " rutilae," " red." The blond locks that
the great Venetian limners painted, were, we know,
decolorised by art, like those of some contemporary
damsels. On the whole, then, I distrust or discount
much of what old writers said about the fair or red
hair of the ancient inhabitants of Europe. Still,
there is some pretty strong evidence of change.
Such is that derivable from the colour statistics of
Virchow and G. Mayr, and from my own, as to the
greater proportion of dark eyes and hair in cities.

From Virchow we have the proportion borne by
brown-haired children to the blond-haired, and that
of brown-eyed children to the blue-eyed, for 33
cities of Germany, with the surrounding or neigh-
bouring rural districts in every case available for
comparison. Of these 33, in one the citizens are
distinctly the lighter in both hair and eyes. This
is Metz, and the phenomena are doubtless due to the
recent addition of a large Germanic and compara-
tively blond element to the population of the city,
while the rural population remains unchanged.
Seven more cities show no considerable excess in
either way over the country people, or an excess in
one respect and a deficiency in the other. These
are Wiesbaden (which has none of the unfavourable
characteristics of a city), Ezberfeld, Crefeld and
Barmen, which are quite modern towns of mush-
room growth, where no new influences have had

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 179

time to work ; Bradenburg, Strasburg, and Halle, a
small place. In the remaining 25, both eyes and
hair are decidedly darker than in the surrounding
country. Of these, in 5, viz., Potsdam, Erfurt, Trier,
Aachen, and Stuttgard, the hair is more affected
than the eyes; in two, Liegnitz and Dusseldolf,
both are equally affected ; and in the remaining 18
the eyes are proportionally more darkened than the
hair, in comparison with the surrounding rural
population.

The difference is most striking in the north-east,
in Prussia proper : thus in Elbing the proportion of
brown eyes to blue is in the city 74 to 100, in the
surrounding country 31 only, a difference consider-
ably more than double : the darkness of the hair is
as 34 to 24. In the west, and still more in the south,
where the rural population is darker, the phenom-
enon is less conspicuous. In Frankfort-on-the-Main,
a very ancient city, it comes out strongly. There
the figures stand thus : —

To 100 Blond-haired. To 100 Blue-Eyed.
Brown-haired. Brown-Eyed.

Frankfort City, - - 51 152

Nassau Province, - 38 82

In Bavaria, 34 cities and towns, in 7 out of 8
provinces, are separated from the rural districts:
many of these are quite small places. In 5 of these
provinces the town scholars have more often dark
hair than the country scholars; in Upper Bavaria
the numbers are equal; in Lower Bavaria the
citizen scholars come out fairest. In every one of
the 7 provinces the citizen scholars have a larger

180 The Anthropological History of Europe.

proportion of dark eyes. Curiously, they have not
more of black hair, though of brown hair as com-
pared with blond the excess is considerable. The
figures are : —

Blond Hair. Brown. Black.

Cities, - . - 49 47 4

Rural districts, - - 55 40 5

Light Eyes. Dark Eyes.

Cities, - ... 63 37

Rural districts, - - - 67 33

Here in Bavaria, as in Germany generally, the
difference seems to disappear where the rural popu-
lation is darkest. Lower Bavaria has the darkest
people in all Germany.

Now let us compare our own country.

I have three sets of statistics which are relevant :
two of my own observation, the other deduced from
the military notices in the Hue and Cry relating to
deserters, whose birthplaces are given. The same
is the case in my own schedules from the West of
England, but not in my other and larger report,
which is therefore of much less value. I have
framed an index system for the Hue and Cry
statistics, representing greater depth of colour by
an increasing figure, and these are the results for
hair : —

Index.

London, 7'3 Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Essex, - - 3*2

Brighton, 8* Sussex, ------- 3-

Bristol, 14* Somerset and Gloucestershire, - - - 8*7

Birmingham, 10*5 Warwickshire, Worcestershire, Staffordshire, 7*

Newcastle, 8"5 Northumberland, ----- 4-7

Edinburgh, 7'4 Lothians (minus), ----- 4-3

Glasgow, 13-7 All Scotland, ------ 3-1

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 181

There is no exception here; but the eyes, which
are not very carefully noted, seem to be much the
same in town and country. In my own statistics
for Great Britain, I am able in about 25 instances to
separate town and country : in all these the hair of
the inhabitants of cities was the darker, except (in
England) in Shrewsbury, Hereford, Gloucester and
Truro (all, you will observe, situated on the Welsh
border or in Cornwall, where the general population
is dark-haired), and in Scotland, in Aberdeen and
Arbroath. I have not worked out the figures for
the eyes ; but in my schedule of natives of the West
of England I have done so, with the result that in
the larger towns dark eyes prevail. I have no doubt
that this phenomenon, the greater darkness of both
hair and eyes in citizens than in country-folk, is
largely due to the perpetual immigration of dark-
complexioned foreigners. In our own case, these are
Frenchmen, Italians, converted Jews (who melt
away into the general population), and Welshmen,
and so-called Black Kelts, from the remote west of
these islands. In the case of Germany, they come
from France, from Italy, from the same Jewish
source, and from Bohemia and neighbouring parts.
But I doubt whether this, though a good explana-
tion so far as it goes, is a sufficient one ; and I am
strongly disposed to see in the matter a case of
natural selection, the blond children being, in my
opinion, already expressed, often more difficult
to rear amid the many unfavourable influences
that accompany city life, while the blond adults,
being of a more restless and adventurous tem-

182 The Anthropological History of Europe.

perament, are more disposed to wander and to
emigrate.

Since the above was written, Dr. Shrubsall has
proved that blond children in towns suffer more
from rheumatism and throat affections than those
of dark complexion, whose special weak points are
not so liable to develop until comparatively late in
life, and who, therefore, have a better chance of
surviving to reproduce their species.

In fine, we have fairly satisfactory proof that
under ordinary circumstances the physical charac-
teristics of well-defined races of men, such as form,
colour, and even size, are absolutely permanent; and
that when we wish to find an explanation of such
characteristics occurring in any particular locality,
we should first " cher-cher la race." We must allow,
however, that under a change of external circum-
stances natural selection may exert its influence to
alter they type, and that conjugal, and what may be
called social selection may also apparently modify
it. Thirdly, the direct influences of external
agencies, except upon the individual, and for his
life only, is as yet unproven, though not by any
means absolutely disproved.

III.

To what races or types, then, is the future to
belong?

The northern dolichos at present multiply freely,
and are actively engaged in colonizing the North
American and Australian Continents, in which
their type is now dominant. Whether it will long

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 183

continue to be so, may be doubted. There is in the
colonists plenty of size, of vigour, of beauty, and of
intellectual power; nevertheless, there are signs
which lead some to doubt whether all these will be
permanent. The birth-rate tends to decrease among
the pure Anglo-Americans, while the French-Can-
adians, strongly crossed with native Indian blood,
are multiplying with alarming rapidity; and the
American military statistics seem, prima facie, to
indicate that the climate is less suitable to the blond
than to the brunette.

And in Europe the brachykephals, and, what is
nearly the same thing for us, the brunettes, have
been shown to be gaining ground, in the west only
insensibly, as it were by infection, but in the east,
among the Slavs, with open certainty. Topinard,
no admirer of the brachykephalic type, says in his
latest work {U Homme dans la Nature) that the day
will come when it will be universal. The Medi-
terranean race has had its turn ; it exhausted its
energies long ago in the conquest of South America
and "the Indies," and is now comparatively stag-
nant ; but there are some signs, I think, of its future
revival. But, of the increase of the Jews, at least,
there can be no doubt whatever. There are no data
to shew us whether of the two curiously discrimin-
ated Jewish types is gaining on the other; but I
strongly suspect that it is the brachykephalic.
However that may be, the Jews grow not only in
number, living longer and dying less readily than
the Gentiles among whom they dwell, but they are
gradually attracting to themselves the whole move-

184 The Anthropological History of Europe.

able wealth of the earth ; and wealth is power, and
the world must move or halt as wealth bids it. It
would be strange if, in spite of the community of
religion and traditions and usages, there were not
some moral or intellectual difference connected
with the physical one between these two sections
of the Hebrews. And I believe there is. The
Sephardim, who have usually the rather small oval
true Semitic type of head, are said to be some-
what looked up to by the Ashkenazim, who are
mostly of the broad-headed type. And whatever
may be the case at the present time, in past
times it has been individuals from among the
Sephardim who have distinguished themselves
from the common herd of their fellow-believers,
and that in ways more noble than that of money-
making.

And so again with the two great races of north-
ern and central Europe. De CandoUe and De
Lapouge will tell us that of men of genius, of
originality, men who have made their mark in
history, or literature, or science, and whose memory
remains green among us, the majority have been
born among the long-headed blonds, the Aryans, as
most people incorrectly call them.

If we dot the map of Europe wherever a great
man has been born, we shall find, say they, that the
dots will cluster about an axis drawn from Edinburgh
(mark that, ye Aberdonians, they do not say "from
Aberdeen ") — from Edinburgh to Switzerland. A
subordinate line might be drawn, crossing the first,
from Normandy to the Baltic; and there will

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 185

remain two or three independent blotches about the
Garonne, the Rhone, and Upper Italy.

It is evident therefore, in spite of Schaffhausen,^
that there is virtue in the long-headed stock, the
stock which, as the Tanagra figures show us, pre-
dominated in the old Greeks. But its partizans go
further, and say that men of genius not only arise
among them, but are themselves, in majority, con-
stituted like the stock amidst which they arise.
And I incline to think they are right.

Dr. Venn has shewn, in the Anthropological
Transactions, that at Cambridge the first-class men
have proportionally longer as well as more capacious
heads than the rest of the students. In our own
islands, where the breadth of head varies locally but
little, and its general form more decidedly, while
the complexion varies very considerably, it is safe
to say that men of distinction are in large proportion
natives of the more blond areas. The east, north
and south, surpass in this respect the centre and
west. Conan Doyle, in a rather superficial exam-
ination, found that after Edinburgh and some other
parts of Scotland not well defined, Hampshire and
Suffolk, two somewhat despised Anglo-Saxon dis-
tricts,^ headed the list. And I may perhaps be
allowed to quote myself on the same topic — "In
opposition to the current opinion, it would seem
that the Welsh rise most in commerce, the Scotch

1 This illustrious anthropologist, so often referred to in these lectures,
has died since they were delivered.

'^ " Hampshire hogs," and " Silly Suffolk " are proverbial.
13

186 The Anthropological History of Europe.

coming after them, and the Irish nowhere. The
people of Welsh descent and name hold their own
fairly in science : the Scotch do more, the Irish less
— (I am taking the English as the standard). But
when one looks to the attainment of military or
political distinction, the case is altered. Here the
Scotchmen, and especially the Highlanders, bear
away the palm ; the Irish retrieve their position,
and the Welsh are little heard of." If I were to
hazard a guess, a thing I am not very fond of doing,
I would say that among the longheads it is the
wider, among the broadheads the longer, that more
often rise to distinction. In each case the skull,
while retaining its original general pattern, acquires
an additional development in the direction in which
it is most deficient. You may have two heads which
give you about the same index in brutal figures,
but in which the mode of development and the
details of form are quite different. Thus, I am
inclined to look on the old Roman head as a high
type of longhead, widened in the temporal region.
If you want to have a disputed question put
trenchantly, clearly, logically, and carried out to
the bitter end, you must go to France to have it
done; and in this particular case you may go to
Obedenare to champion the broad, and to De
Lapouge and De Candolle to sing the praise of the
longhead. One would suppose, in listening to
them, that the children of light were not more
sharply discriminated from the children of darkness;
only as to which is which they differ.

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 187

On the one hand, we are told that the long-
suffering race, which desired to harm nobody, to
rule over and tryannize over nobody, which asked
only to be allowed to remain at peace in the land of
its birth, and to labour and produce without inter-
ference from the brigands, the restless warriors and
conquerors of the other race, but which hitherto
has seldom had this modest privilege, now at last,
in these latter days, begins to see a chance of its
virtuous aspirations being realised. No longer will
its youth, in the days to come, be torn from their
homes and enrolled in armies to satisfy the greed
for land and dominion of the long-headed barbar-
ians; their undeniable valour will be exercised only
in defence of their homes, and their patient industry
and domestic affection, will be crowned with peace
and plenty, with equality and fraternity.

On the other hand, we are told that in common
schools in France, the long-headed children surpass
the broad-headed ones; that the world owes far
more to the Englishman, the Scotchman, and the
Norman, than to the Kelt, the Rhgetian, the Rouman
or the Slav; and that it would simply stagnate and
putrefy were the northern long-headed race to be
nipped and checked in its development, for the
source of originality, of genius, of inventiveness, of
the spirit of travel and of adventure, would be cut
off. " Better fifty years of Europe," they say in
effect, "than a cycle of Cathay."

These ideas are extreme, of course. No people
in homogeneous, or has an absolute monopoly of

188 The Anthropological History of Europe.

any particular endowment. The Alpine race are
not always pacific or industrious; their ancestors
apparently treated the primitive Iberians of France
as badly as we treat the native Australians, and
their stone arrows have been found sticking in the
ribs of those unfortunate longheads. " Breton "
(and most of the Bretons are of this race) was about
the 14th century synonymous with " swashbuckler,"
and the Croats have not the reputation of law-
abiding harmlessness. Still, certain qualities do
adhere to certain races, and seem to be due greatly
to their histories, traditions, and environments,
the influence of their great writers, and so forth,
but partly also to their physical conformation
and hereditary constitution of brain. Scott has
done something, no doubt, towards moulding the
modern Scottish character; but then, he was him-
self the product of the Scottish border, and could
not have been born anywhere else.

It is an invidious thing to draw national char-
acters, and to point out their defects. But how
seldom do the English produce a great orator, or
the Irish a great engineer, or the Scotch a great actor,
or the Welsh, though undeniably brave, a great
soldier. The Spaniards have always been cruel, the
French boastful, the Italians crafty and cunning, the
English lovers of fair play, respecters of wealth,
sufferers from " mauvaise haute/)' These points come
out repeatedly in history. My audience laughed
when they heard that the Little-Russians were "fond
of greasy feeding and of music ; " but we may look
nearer home, and say the same of the Yorkshire

Scotland, with General Conclusions. 189

men. The love and skill for music go back in them
at least 700 years; of the antiquity of the other
characteristic I am not so sure; perhaps it is as old
as the time of the " felon sow," when :—

" Ralph of Rokeby with good will
The friars of Rokeby gave her till.
Full well to gar them fare."

Or as that still more remote period when roast pork
loomed so largely among the idle joys of the
Vikings' Valhalla.

Finally, there are assuredly diversities of gifts
pertaining to diverse breeds of men ; and unless we
are all reduced to the dull dead level of socialism,
and perhaps even in that case, for the sake of relief,
we shall continue to stand in need of all these gifts.
Let us hope, then, that blue eyes, as well as brown
eyes, will continue to beam on our descendants, and
that heads will never come to be framed all upon
one and the same pattern.

APPENDIX.

DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Curves of Stature.

Bertillon pere discovered that the curve of stature
of the conscripts of the department of the Doubs
was bicipital, one of its equal peaks being at 164
centimeters and the other about 169'5. He attribu-
ted these facts to the presence of two incompletely
amalgamated races, the Keltic and the Burgundian,
the latter being the taller. On this hypothesis the
Burgundians ought not, one would think, to have
produced a peak in the curve equal to that due to
the Kelts ; for we know that they were not nearly
so numerous (they took only one-third of the land
from the natives). One may, however, suppose them
reinforced in their influence on the stature by other
tall tribes or immigrants, Germanic or Belgic. It
was soon discovered that a somewhat similar bi-
cipital curve occurred in the conscription lists of
most of the north-eastern departments of France,
all or almost all of which are inhabited by a com-
paratively tall breed of men.

A few years later, however, Ridolfo Livi demon-
strated that the bicipital form of the curve in these
cases was due to an arithmetical error, which
naturally arose in the translation of Paris inches
into centimeters, and to the natural, but unconscious,
bias of observers and measurers for round numbers.

Appendix. 191

The presence of two races of differing stature,
and not thoroughly amalgamated, does, however,
tend to produce a broader, lower, and more extensive
curve. Of this I have given some examples. In the
Doubs and Ardennes the taller race-element (Gal-
atic, Frank, or Burgundian) is tolerably strong, and
pushes out the curve into a conspicuous shoulder,
in the Marne this is not quite so noticeable : in
France generally, including all the south and
west, still less so ; and in the Correze, a poor, hilly,
moorland district, where the native short-statured
brachykephal has been very little disturbed, it is
not recognizable.

Curves of Cranial or Kephalic Index.

In these the influence of race or of hereditary
type, is more distinct and undeniable than in those
of stature, the latter being more liable to disturbing
influences. But even in dealing with heads and
skulls the cautions of Livi must be borne in mind,
and something must be allowed for arithmetical
vagaries, and, where the numbers dealt with are not
great, for pure chance. One hundred is a number
whence one may generally get a probably correct
impression. Thus in Ranke's Franconian series one
may be pretty confident that the lines indicate a
Germanic dolicho and a Slavonic, Keltic or other
brachykephalic element, and that the former as well
as the latter is present in considerable force ; but a
larger number of examples is much to be desired.
The two peaks among my 75 Munstermen are
probably merely accidental. The second peak in
Ranke's Chammiinster men (at 85, 86) may or may
not be significant. The long series of Swiss skulls
which I have taken from KoUmann unites several
races from the prehistoric ones down. In the

192 Appendix.

Swedish diagram, based on sufficiently large num-
bers, Dalarne (Dalecarlia) yields an almost absol-
utely symmetrical curve, indicating a pure Nordic
or Suiogothic race, but Lappland bulges to the
broader side, owing to the presence of round-headed
Lapps.

In the purely British diagram the curves of
Devon and Wilts differ considerably. Wiltshire is
notable for the complete or nearly complete absence
of true brachykephals. It has a prolongation on the
dolicho side rising to a peak at 72, which may
perhaps be due to descendants and representatives
of the denizens of our long barrows. For the Wilt-
shire population seem to be almost wholly Saxon or
Iberian, with very little sign of French or Welsh
invasion. Its average index is about 76"3. That of
Devon is about 7816; it is frankly mesokephalic,
and may represent a population largely Brythonic.
The 100 men of intellectual superiority give me a
lower average (77'87), mesokephalic, but near the
confines of dolichokephaly. Though generally
(with many exceptions it is true), of larger size, in
kephalic index they do not differ notably from the
races to which they belong. The main body of
the scheme represents the English and the Scotch
generally: the secondary peak to the right may
perhaps be due to the Norman, Huguenot and
Welsh elements, not completely assimilated.

THE END.

Beddoe, John
^^^ The antliropological

B4. history of Europe

GN
57

1912

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